ACADEMIC PORTFOLIO OF
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LITERARY ESSAYS
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Copyright of Mark A Whelan
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1. APARTHEID
IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN SHORT STORY
2. THE IRONY
OF APARTHEID – Making a transition and reaching the threshold
3. POOR
LITTLE GIRL – Jane Austen
4. ALTERNATIVE
WORLDS IN FICTION
5. GABRIELLA,
CLOVE AND CINNAMON – Jorge Amado
6. TWO
LITERARY TEXTS, A Comparison – Andre P Brink & J M Coetzee
7. AESTHETIC
VIEWS
8. AESTHETIC
VALUE OF DISGRACE – J M Coetzee
9. APPROACHES
TO DISGRACE – J M Coetzee
10. A
STATE OF GRACE – J M Coetzee
11. J M
COETZEE’S IDEOLOGIES – J M Coetzee
12. DANGOR’S
CURSE – Achmat Dangor
13. FREUD’S
PSYCHOANALYSIS – Using the Oedipus Complex to do a Literary Analysis –
14. THE
PERFORMATIVE TURN – A Report on Julius Malema’s Song Dubul I’Bunu – Kill The
Boer , And the Proposal that it be declared as Hate Speech
15. THE
GARDEN OF THE FINZI-CONTINIS – Giorgio Bassani
16. THE
HISTORY OF ENGLISH
17. ARGUING
AGAINST MILL’S POSITION ON THE MORAL SIGNIFICANCE OF OUR ACTIONS, A critical
evaluation – John Stuart Mill
18. AN
UNFORGIVING POEM – Roshila Nair
19. DEARLY
BELOVED – Toni Morrison
20. PROBLEMS
RELATED TO THE CONCEPT OF “ A NATIONAL SOUTH AFRICAN LITERATURE “ , A Discussion
and Proposal
21. I
FEEL THEREFORE I AM – Wole Soyinka
1.
APARTHEID
IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN SHORT STORY
In this note we discuss the South African short story genre and how it reflects the key social issue of Apartheid in South Africa and its resultant discrimination, abuse and victimisation.
Each narrator,
Nadine Gordimer, Zoe Wicomb, Ivan Vladislavic, Es’Kia Mphahlele and Maureen
Isaacson, gives their own interpretation of the key social issue of Apartheid. In most cases we agree with them,
but there is always room for disagreement. Like the narrators, we empathise
with their victimised characters, effectively created to reflect the negative
connotations of Apartheid.
The use of
derogatory words and phrases, racial sterotyping, dialogue and landscapes are
effective.
Gordimer is the
most diligent and consistent proponent of these techniques, however, Zoe Wicomb
and Ivan Vladislavic offer more introspective, conscionable and sensitive
approaches. Wicomb’s approach is balanced as she elucidates both negative and
positive feelings related to the condition of the South African “ Coloured “
woman.
In Writing South Africa (Attridge, D, ed
1998) Wicomb comments;
“ Miscegenation,
the origins of which lie in a discourse of ‘ race ‘ , concupiscence, and
degeneracy, continues to be bound up with shame, a pervasive shame exploited in
Apartheid’s strategy of the naming of a Coloured race, and recurring in the
current attempts by Coloureds to establish brownness as a pure category, which
is to say, a denial of shame. What the case of Baartman shows is how shame
stalks the postcolonial world, broken mirror in hand, reproducing itself in puzzling
distortions. “
The most popular
and effective device used by all the narrators, however, remains that of irony.
In Gordimer’s
prose racial issues are more persistently elucidated than others such as sexual
mores and relationships, given particularly from the female perspective.
Class
consciousness is a key issue for Wicomb who comments on this sensitively,
reflecting on the self and physical characteristics. She reflects more clearly
on both the physical and political landscapes than Gordimet. In “ A Trip to the
Gifberge “ (p 175, 1987 You Can’t Get
Lost in Cape Town London: Vintage) we observe how discreetly and
sensitively the narrator’s mother communicates “ in someone else’s voice ” with
the white proprietor, Mr Friedland. “
The Gifberge “ is a bitter and direct reference to the poisoning nature of
Apartheid. Little is said about politics, but the mood is sufficiently
encapsulated in the narrator’s ignorant aunt’s protestation of “ Ag, don’t you start with politics now “ (p 168). In considering both writers’
diverse backgrounds it is also important to note the different time frames in
which these women write.
Ivan Vladislavic,
however, errs on the side of the oppressive villain and the proverbial
anti-hero. His main concern with alienation is effectively foregrounded . In “
Journal of a Wall “ (p 707, Chapman, M, ed 2007 Omnibus of South African Short Stories Jeppestown: AD Donker) the
narrator imprisons himself within the seemingly secure walls of his home,
masking his own insecurity of engaging with the “ other “ , even if it may be
another “ white “ male, consciously reflecting the fear that gripped whites
during PW Botha’s era of “kragdadigheid”.
Es’Kia Mphahlele,
however, bridges the gap between black and white, adopting a conciliatory tone.
In “ Mrs Plum “ (p 339) even though desires are alterior, both the white
suburban woman and her black maidservant attempt a union on grounds not
familiar to South Africans at the time of writing this short story. Inspired by
his African roots, Mpahlele’s prose is rich in irony and satire. Being on the
side of the black “other” allows him to comment more insightfully an
effectively on racial discrimination than “white” writers.
Maureen Isaacson
later reminds us that Apartheid has not yet been overcome. In “Holding Back the
Midnight” (p 797) she gives a rebellious and bleak interpretation of racial
discrimination, foregrounding an ineffectual attempt at interracialism. Here,
the irony is that her stereotypical oppressor appear weak and emasculated, but
are not yet spent. Isaacson present a post-apartheid portrait of South Africa
where intimate interracial unions are still frowned upon, but are now legal in
the “new South Africa”. The white female protagonist is unable to shock her
older male peers who were more adept at shocking people with their atrocities
against black South Africans.
Gordimer is the
best proponent of highlighting social ills caused b Apartheid and racial
discrimination, but Mphahlele and Wicomb successfully comment on
discrimination, emotively and sympathetically because of their racial
orientation. Gordimer’s approach, however, is correct as she distances herself
from both oppressor and oppressed. It is the writer’s craft to remain
ambiguous, allowing the reader to formulate his own opinions on the text.
While Mphahlele
and Wicomb justifiably take biased approaches from time to time, Vladislavic
and Isaacson pursue roles as ant-heroes. Isaacson’s approach is interesting
because her protagonist takes on the role of both the female oppressed and
anti-hero.
Gordimer’s most
effective device is the use of derogatory words and phrases. The deferential
term given to the white land owner, “ baas “ , is used no less than nine times
in “ Six Feet of the Country “ (p 69, 1983 Selected
Stories London: Penguin), while
hideously and patronisingly derogatory references such as; “ poor devils, boy, our boys, my natives, the
patient ass, so many black faces, poultry boy “ are made to the black “ other
“. These terms effectively denote the white narrator’s sense of alienation in a
landscape devoid of any other white peers. Although aloof from this landscape,
Gordimer allows her bitterness of being isolated and alienated in Africa to
influence her prose. She puts the blame for Apartheid and its accompanying
discrimination on the shoulders of others, but, like JM Coetzee in Disgrace (2000 London: Vintage) does not
accept responsibility. Gordimer claims in Living
in Hope and History (p 14 London: Bloomsbury Publishing) that she is “a
South African actively opposed to racism all my life”. Admittedly she does
criticise the debilitating effects of Apartheid in What is Apartheid? (p 105,
1959) and in her prose as a whole. It is not enough, a dilemma that Coetzee
attempts to confront in his own prose.
I enjoy Wicomb’s
warm, sensitive, conscionable and knowledgeable approach the most wherein she
gives balanced perspectives on her peers and her own shortcomings as well as
contributing positively to their rich culture. With ironic undertones, she
makes reference to being ”a Griqua girl”
(p 167) and places of origin such as “Namaqualand” (p 169). She also
references “the Coloured people from the
West Indies just fighting on the streets, killing each other and still wearing
their dovekies from home” (p 168). While she foregrounds perceptions of
barbarity and primitivity she does not need to remind the reader of the root
cause of their behaviour.
Vladislavic’s
approach is also appreciated and understandable, but although laced with
satire, it is too negative, as he subconsciously avoids hybridity, choosing
alienation instead. Coetzee is a more adept proponent of this approach. This
approach is at least honest.
Mphahlele is understandably biased
in favour of the oppressed, but he could have used his
intellectual privilege to survey a more
balanced perspective of racial discrimination, telling
both sides of the story, as it were.
In Down Second Avenue (2004,
Craighall: Picador Africa)
he
eloquently describes his progression in the field of literature. It is,
however, the writer’s
fundamental right to propagate a
particular point of view.
Like Vladislavic, Isaacson’s
approach is negative and bleak. Vladislavic’s anti-hero is left
feeling even more isolated and
alienated while Isaacson’s characters are hesitant to
welcome the new millennium just as
they were at the birth of the new South Africa.
Gordimer persists with irony,
derogatoriness, racial stereotyping and landscaping to
effectively foreground the white
protagonist’s sense of alienation;
“ Out in the country, even ten miles
out, life is better than that. In the country, there is a
lingering remnant of the
pretransitional stage. “ (p 70)
Wicomb, though, uses Coloured
stereotypes, and uses landscapes to empower rather than
disempower them.
Vladislavic, like Gordimer, uses the
landscape to highlight the condition of alienation and
isolation, while Mphahlele uses racial
stereotypes as a key device to take the side of the
oppressed protagonist. Isaacson
hints that racial mixing is doomed to fail.
I agree with Gordimer’s aloof,
ambiguous approach, however, I disagree with her refusal to
take responsibility. I agree with
Wicomb’s balanced and sensitive approach.
Vladislavic’s honest, rebellious
approach will always be understood. I reiterate that it is a
fundamental human right and matter
of choice whether or not to mix socially, culturally,
religiously and racially. I disagree with
Vladislavic’s perceived choices, however, as it goes
against the grain of my own feelings
and beliefs. Using characterisation, however, to show
negative connotations of racial
isolation and alienation remains acceptable.
In principle, I agree with
Mphahlele’s approach, but still wish for balanced points of view. He
does, however, offer the reader a
morally and spiritually uplifting conclusion to “ Mrs Plum”
where he shows how the bargaining
process between blacks and whites unfold (p 365).
“ Mrs Plum says to me, she says, You
know, I like your people, Karabo, the Africans.” (p 366)
Perhaps the greatest irony of
Apartheid comes from within, hidden in the subconscious.
Perhaps it has its roots in Slavic mountain
ranges, and the dry, arid plains of the Karoo.
In conclusion, I reiterate the
writers’ use of devices, particularly that of irony, in the short
story genre, to comment on the key social
issue of Apartheid and generations of racial
stereotyping, reclassification,
discrimination and abuse, which were discussed in this note.
MAKING A TRANSITION AND REACHING
THE THRESHOLD: THE SOUTH AFRICAN WRITER AND THE
SOUTH AFRICAN CONDITION
A DISCOURSE ON THE SOUTH AFRICAN
SHORT STORY AND THE WRITER’S USE OF IRONY
The statement “irony is often regarded as a key feature of South African
short fiction” is true. In this
discourse I discuss the implications of this claim in several short stories to
substantiate my agreement with it.
The conventional short story has a beginning, middle and end, but in the
South African context authors deploy irony to highlight the misery and
injustice Apartheid causes.
A popular postmodern deviation used
by writers to shift time in their narrative away from painful
remembrances, is the use of “in medias res” where the story literally starts in
the middle.
Animal metaphors and racial stereotypes are used to foreground the irony
of Apartheid.
In “ Six Feet of the Country” (Gordimer, N 1983: 69) situational irony
is used to highlight the white settler’s existential angst in a life of
apparent bliss. When considering this form of irony we observe that South
African writers have something in common. They are learned, and like their
protagonists, are all victims of Apartheid and racism. They empower themselves
to write the stories of the disenfranchised and disillusioned while their
characters are unable to do this. They narrate what Athol Fugard calls the pain
of lived reality (de Kock 2008: 6) in the unique South African landscape.
Each text is a discourse of Apartheid and the patriarchy which hovers
over South Africa from before nineteen forty-eight when the National Party
institutionalised racial prejudice, to after nineteen ninety-four when the
country finally plunges head first into hybridity, homogeneity and equality.
Each text is postcolonial, searching for new alternatives to racism and
the alienating effects it brings with it. Transition is important in these
texts. Most characters encounter transition, but do not always cross the
threshold from old to new. This deliberate authorial hesitation contributes
powerfully to the key feature of irony in the texts.
In Writing South Africa (Attridge,
D 1998: 25) Andre Brink says;
“ Postmodernism offers exciting challenges because the postmodern text
is never read in its own right”.
He writes that; “ there is a dimension to the present experience of
transition – the discovery of Africa! “
WE discuss the short fiction of South African authors, showing how they
use iroy. Emphasis is placed of the work of Es’kia Mphahlele, Zoe Wicomb and
Ivan Vladislavic.
In “ Six Feet of the Country ” racism
is criticised against the background of rural South Africa. The white farmer’s
racist complacency is foregrounded using derogatory words such as “baas” and
“boy” (Ferguson, D 1995: 245).
Situational irony in this conventional short story, shows how the white
man, deferred by the black man, inevitably finds no happiness in this idyll of
rural privilege patronisation.
The protagonist’s transition is made when he begrudgingly helps an old
black man give his dead son a dignified burial (p 252). No threshold is crossed
as the farmer remains racist towards rural Africans.
“ Rain “ (Rive, R), a bleak narrative of a cold and wet Cape Town
setting, metaphorises the hopeless, desperate, lonely and sad life of the
naïve, Coloured protagonist, Siena (Malan, R, ed 1994: 11).
‘In medias res’ recalls happier days when Siena and her lover meet in
rural surroundings. This serves as a metaphor for the desolation of Apartheid.
The negatively stereotyped Coloured male is foregrounded as a scapegoat
of the Apartheid struggle.
Transition is ironically encountered by the antagonist, a blaspheming
Jew, attempting to sympathise with Siena (p 16). There is no transitional
moment for her. Everything remains the same. Preferring his white privilege,
the shopkeeper does not, however, reach a threshold.
In “Mrs Plum” (Mphahlele) the irony of Apartheid is shown from the
outset (Chapman, M, ed 2007: 339).
Mrs Plum is sarcastically addressed as “Madam”.
Colour highlights the irony of Apartheid;
“So the suburbs were full of blackness” (p 339)
Black is negatively connoted, yet it is the “white”, a connotation of
purity, who is inhumanely racist.
Wise, and a charitable educator, Mrs Plum is a sympathetic white
liberal. Irony courses through this liberal who patronises the story’s
protagonist, Karabo, to the point that it contributes to her improvement (p
341).
Karabo empoweringly encounters her transition and reaches a threshold
after attending the “Black Brow Club” (p 345). Harsh reality still lingers;
“ A master and a servant can never be friends “.
The ironic use of the dog metaphors emphasises enslavement and possessed
property for which Africans must work very hard to attain. Tonal irony shows
how Karabo’s relationship with Mrs Plum becomes circumspect.
Situational irony is invoked wen mistress and servant are momentarily
united agains the degeneration of Mrs Plum’s daughter who rebels against her
mother an enters into an illicit interracial relationship with a black man.
Irony deepens as the daughter rejects education and loses her emotional and
intellectual freedom in submitting to the traditional black man. As Mrs Plum
goes to jail to “stand up for what she believes” the change in Karabo is
enforced. She gives advice to a pregnant friend, reacts cruelly to her
metaphorical oppressor, the dog, whilst revolting against the grotesqueness of
abortion and the hideous act of giving “white’ dogs a serene burial.
Opposing Apartheid much earlier, Mrs Plum’s transition is reached
already, however, she unwittingly reaches a threshold when she visits Karabo to
plead for her to continue her domestic duties. Karabo’s newfound bargaining
powers and Mrs Plum’s desperation enforce an era of mutual understanding and
respect.
In “A Trip to the Gifberge” (Zoe Wicomb) the narrator’s mother
antagonises against her daughter’s flight from Apartheid. She returns when
things improve. Ironically, her mother stays behind, becoming the true
inheritor of a landscape poisoned by Apartheid. Daughter and mother are
conscious of their physical characteristics (p 164). In Writing South Africa (Attridge) Zoe Wicomb talks about the shame of
having one’s body stared at and of those females who have mated with the
coloniser. She says;
“Miscegenation, the origins of which lie in a discourse of ‘race’,
concupiscence, and degeneracy, continues to be bound up with shame, a pervasive
shame exploited in Apartheid’s strategy of the naming of a Coloured race, and
recurring in the current attempts by coloureds to establish brownness as a pure
category, which is to say, a denial of shame. What the case of Baartman shows
is how shame stalks the postcolonial world, broken mirror in hand, reproducing
itself in puzzling distortions.”
Wicomb argues that the problem
their identity indicates undermines national identity. There is a
dependence on the old economic, social and epistemological structures of
apartheid. She argues that different groups created by the old system do not
participate equally in “the category of postcoloniality”.
The aunt’s racially influenced remarks highlight a greater conundrum as
she alleges that the country is infected with “disrespectful foreign ways”. She
is right. We recall the colonising influence of the British when they invade
our land with their language and culture. Disapproval is shown towards the
youth who use their education to revolt against Apartheid and colonialism, thus
empowering themselves.
The narrator hates her motherland, dreaming only of her foreign home (p
174). She refuses to be labelled derogatorily, subtly referring to her Khoi and
Griqua heritage.
Deciding to stay on in her native country, thus making her transition,
the narrator cautiously negotiates her threshold. She is not isolated and
empty, and won’t have to “make up those terrible stories” (p 182). She will
have real events to write about.
“Journal of a Wall” (Ivan Vladislavic) alludes to boundaries, conflict
and restrictions. Threatened by racial transition, the white narrator creates
personal boundaries and even considers flight. Te previous narrator leaves
South Africa because of Apartheid. This narrator considers leaving as Apartheid
ends. He is stereotypically characterised; observant, security conscious, yet ironically blind to
areas of concern which he avoids. Preoccupied with sport on the television, he
avoids watching upsetting township violence – “I was upset enough” (Chapman, M,
ed 2007: pp 707, 708 Omnibus of South
African Short Stories).
There are ironically no colour boundaries, or racial stereotypes when
the narrator turns to drinking to curb his depression.
The author shifts time back from the thirty-first to the eighteenth of
May in order to narrate the ironical construction of a barrier between his
neighbours and himself.
Tonal and situational irony is evoked as he recalls;
“I knew when I saw that perfect dune, white as flour, spilling over the
kerb and pavement, that the foundations would be laid that day.” (p 712)
Even in suburbia, vast, rural landscapes are alluded to, metaphorically
displaying postcolonial tensions. The colour white is satirically used to refer
to race. We feel its textures and layers and we are also aware of the
significance of one painted white dot on a brick (pp 713, 714) symbolising the
white man’s isolation and alienation in Africa. His sense of despair deepens
after his neighbours sell their home (pp 718, 719). He ironically deserves
isolation and loneliness, having always been impartial to the pain of others
during the Apartheid years. Neither a white liberal, nor a conservative, he
makes no transition and never reaches a threshold!
“Holding Back the Midnight” (Maureen Isaacson) postmodernistically shows
South African life at the turn of the twenty-first century. Written in present
tense, it juxtaposes a black president against an affluent, influential circle
of apartheid-era white businessmen and politicians, reluctant to embrace
change.
Irony is presented satirically, situationally and tonally. The white men
still believe that they are strong and powerful. They are emasculated, aged and
resistant to change.
The minimalist prose displays images of both old and new South Africa,
key words being; “Old Johannesburg, Soweto City, Old Order, Recycle, Organic,
New Year’s eve”.
While the stereotypical white characters make no transition, the
narrator, in a mixed marriage, makes her transition. Yet, like her white peers,
her threshold is not reached as the new millennium and its uncertainties are
delayed for as long as possible;
“ … there is still one minute to go.” (p 800)
In light of the transitional theme, we see how authors use both conventional
and deviational writing methods to highlight the feature of irony in their
texts.
JANE AUSTIN’S BURLESQUE OF LONLINESS, REDEMPTION AND LOVE
EMMA
Jane Austin’s burlesque, Emma,
is a modern tale of the poor little rich girl’s search for love. Of central
concern is the heroin’s fragile heart, confined to an unstimulating
environment.
Famously Jane Austen said; “I am going to take a heroine whom no-one but
myself will much like.” (Lodge 1978: 11)
Emma is not controlled by the needs of her father. Fearing intimacy she
uses him to hide from her confining world. She also indulges in match-making
schemes. Ironically, she fails to divert admiration away from her lonely self.
The people she wants to bring together are attracted to her in varying ways.
“Handsome, clever and rich” (Austen 1996: 723) she stoutly affirms;
“Handsome, clever and rich” (Austen 1996: 723) she stoutly affirms;
“A single woman, with a very narrow income, must be a ridiculous,
disagreeable old maid! The proper sport of boys and girls; but a single womanof
good fortune, is always respectable, and may be as sensible and pleasant as
anybody else.” (770)
Emma, free to do as she pleases (Bush 1978: 13) keeps her aristocratic
distance. Her home, surrounded by lush ground, is isolated from Highbury, home
to her only companions: Mr and Miss Bates, and Mrs Goddard (732). Alone in her
thoughts of her past, present and future (138), the grounds stimulate her
intellect and lonely heart.
Emma’s father, Mr Woodhouse, is elderly, nervous and depressed. He is a
reclusive hypochondriac who finds succour in his summer and winter walks, his
apothecary, Mr Perry, his gruel and whist table (41). Foolish and weak, he has
enough humanity to be loveable (Simpson: 55). “What was unwholesome to him was
unfit for anybody.” (724)
Emma’s nemesis, Mrs Wilson, observes that her father’s illness is a
great drawback for her (878), but under cover from poor weather, a metaphor for
Emma’s melancholia, spending time with her father in “a whole evening of
backgammon” (939) soothes her.
Set against her love for her father is Emma’s homophillic affection for
Harriet Smith, brought about by her own lack of self-esteem. She embraces
Harriet wth he superior intellect and morality. Marvin Mudrick unfairly calls
Emma an ”unlikeable heroine and latent lesbian, incapable of committing herself
in normal relationships” (22).
The analogy is unfortunate. Conversely Richard Simpson in his “The
Platonic Idea” describes Emma as a “young lady full of preconceived ideas not
borrowed from the traditional romance of poets and novelists which are the
product of our own reflections upon our mental powers”. Her prejudices are
natural and not artificial. Mudrick accuses Emma of “being an imaginist, moved
to play God without tenderness or caution, making the worst of every situation,
imagining evil where there is good and good where there is nothing but an
extension of self. Emma, wanting in altruism and sympathy, must have admirers
to confirm her position (117-123).”
Mudrick acknowledges; “ We sympathise with Emma because she must fall in
love, and we know that she will” (106).
Emma’s future lover and hero, Mr Knightly, sagely observes that “she is
spoilt, the cleverest in her family, quick, assured and the mistress of her
house. In her mother she has lost the only person able to cope with her. She
inherits her mother’s talents, and must have been under subjection to her”
(742).
Knightly, who knew Emma’s family intimately, understands Emma’s
behaviour which may explain her fear of commitment and her father’s
self-centered opposition to marriage.
In anguish, she supports the high sacrament of marriage, and earnestly
goes about her business of setting one with the other. While she shuns marriage
for herself, she subconsciously yearns to be married, no different from genteel
young women of her society with similar aspirations.
Mr Knightly, the oldest and wisest of Jane Austen’s male mentors, is a
serious, strong and attractive councillor. He has authority and beneficience.
He is credible, likeable, humorous and fallible. Wayne Booth describes Knightly
as the most morally reliable character in the novel (23).
He brings about Emma’s redemption, rescuing her from loneliness, within
a confining and unstimulating environment. He has the most concern for her
welfare;
“I should like to see Emma in love, and in some doubt of a return; it
would do her good. But there is nobody hereabouts to attach her; and she goes
so seldom from home.” (141)
Intellectually superior to the characters of Highbury, towering above
all and sundry, he is not repressed and restricted as Emma is. He is acutely
more observant. Knightly encourages forgiveness of Emma’s mistakes. He brings
two lovers, Harriet Smith and the farmer, Robert Martin, together.
“In her carriage with the depressed and silent Harriet Smith Emma felt
the tears running down her cheeks almost all the way home, without being at any
trouble to check them, extraordinary as they were.”
Emma is confirmed and checked. Her turning point is reached. She is
consciously carried some way toward self-knowledge (152, 153). She is redeemed.
Emma is in love. Lionel Trilling advised that sentimental sexuality is
not part of her nature. She chooses her husband wisely, seriously and
eagerly.
It is dancing that romantically brings Emma and Knightley together. Emma
remains in love as she ponders Knightley’s proposal of marriage. On a first
name basis, their union is sealed (911-989). R Simpson observes; “The platonic
ideal is realised, not merely through heart, but through intelligence.”
Complex in personality and nature, heralded above her peers, Emma
willingly acknowledges her errors and graciously opens her heart to Knightley.
The dreamed of union with a true, genteel country gentleman is formed.
Knightley is above everyone throughout the novel, and Emma’s openness towards
him brings his love for her to fruition.
Emma rises above her circumstances and Knightley meets her in
conversation, rational or playful. Her circumstances justify her unruly
behaviour and she is deserving of her hero.
In the truest sense Jane Austen masterfully transforms her anti-heroine
into a heroine, encouraging the reader to revel in her complex creation, yet
another caricature of her own self.
We note Micheal William’s (2002: 38) observation of the flexible medium,
but ultimately it is Emma Woodhouse’s and Mr Knightley’s feelings that we
dearly consider. We rejoice in Jane Austen’s coup de grace, a true meeting of
minds, in heart, body and soul.
GENERAL REFLECTIONS ON LTERATURE AND READING
I am afraid that in the event I will not impress you. Nevertheless.
Reading is important to me. It is a critical part of my life. Since this is the first time in my literary life that I have been asked why it is so, there is no easy way to define its importance to me. Without it I struggle to breathe, like a fish out of water.
Reading is important to me. It is a critical part of my life. Since this is the first time in my literary life that I have been asked why it is so, there is no easy way to define its importance to me. Without it I struggle to breathe, like a fish out of water.
From the time that I open my
eyes in the morning to the moment when I finally draw the curtain on my long,
weary day, I am preoccupied with my reading and its different forms. The early
morning crispness of the main news events and its accompanying opinions satisfy
my curiosity and heighten my arousal for more insightful and thought-provoking
prose later in the day. Lying on my bed, reading a literary, or classical
novel, or even a collection of theoretical analyses, or literary criticism, is,
apart from sleep, or watching an artistic film, one of the most soothing
moments of my day.
Getting to know myself a
little better each hour of my day, and each day of the year, I can tell you
that my reading moments are not egotistical, nor are they pretentious. In my
formative years as a literary being, my vocabulary, some say choice of words,
and my command of narrative may not be anywhere near as condensed as Jane
Austen's is. My thoughts are not nearly as aesthetically developed as yours may
be. I am quite far from being the intellectual that the Serapion Brotherhood of
Soviet Russia were known to be, and quite far from the standard set by the
Nobel Prize-winning J M Coetzee and his peers. Yet it is a standard of
literariness that I aspire to, not so much out vain ambition, but rather out of
feeling that I am developing my own mind in a way that no other teacher may be
able to.
My reading preference is for
literary and classical prose which branches into other genres such as history,
politics, philosophy, colonialism and post-colonialism. I also enjoy the
modernist trend of literary works of art which has not necessarily replaced the
classics (it can never be replaced), but has excitingly evolved into
postmodernist literary prose which is also undergoing a programme of evolution.
Literature thus to me, remains an exciting and stimulating field of study.
My broad and informed
knowledge of things wide and near is, I acknowledge, influenced by my own set
beliefs. I am now more concerned with the aesthetic quality of literary prose
and the enunciation of the authors’ thoughts, opinions and generally the
strength of his words and narratives in putting forward his own set of beliefs.
I am also preoccupied at characterisation in narratives which is used to
foreground these thoughts and opinions.
I remain endeared to Jane
Austin’s portrayal of situational events and even go as far as proposing that
she may have pioneered the advent of the modern television sitcom.
There is nothing more liberating than independent thought, and nothing more invigorating than being able to express yourself freely, and yet I am weighed down by the burden of these thoughts and how harmful limitless freedom of expression can be. I look at myself in ways that can make me cry, and this is before I even think of the harm being done to innocent minds and to the good character of some of our better citizens, particularly those that lead by example.
There is nothing more liberating than independent thought, and nothing more invigorating than being able to express yourself freely, and yet I am weighed down by the burden of these thoughts and how harmful limitless freedom of expression can be. I look at myself in ways that can make me cry, and this is before I even think of the harm being done to innocent minds and to the good character of some of our better citizens, particularly those that lead by example.
I am allowed to formulate my
own beliefs and feelingly express myself, even propagating for the benefit of
others, not necessarily for self-enrichment. This would achieve nothing in my
scheme of things.
At the same time I object to
censorship whose sole ideology is to corrupt and repress a developing mind.
These thoughts and expressions,
I think, contribute to a human condition and the attainment of a higher purpose
which is yet to be understood in full by humankind.
(B) MY FAVOURITE NOVEL
J M Coetzee's Booker Prize-winning novel, DISGRACE, continues to
captivate me, even after a number of readings. Twelve years after its first
publication, it is still relevant in the context of our multi-cultural and
still evolving society. The cold crispness and liminality of Coetzee's
authorial voice is to my mind quite unique, so much so that it stands head and
shoulders above similar texts with multiple layers of sub-themes.
While Coetzee almost
playfully, one could say, experiments with the intertext, such as in the case
of the protagonist David Lurie's manic preoccupation with the poet Byron and
the vivid, arid Eastern Cape landscape which is compared to a sixteenth-century
puritanical town called Salem, the landscape in which DISGRACE is set, from the
cool evening walks through a botanical garden near the university where Lurie
teaches, to the dry smallholding occupied by his daughter, Lucy, is realistic
and easy to imagine. Characterisation is realistic too.
While the novel’s themes are
complex in its development, it is not uncommon and is in context with the
broader landscape of South Africa, past and present. Critically this landscape
extends beyond our country's borders as we find that Lurie's preoccupations
with his behaviour, ruthless at times, and thoughts, are universal thoughts. In
another one of Coetzee's memorable novels, AGE OF IRON, it is an elderly
retired school teacher, Mrs Curren who begs the question of what it takes to be
a good person in our universe. And, indeed, she remarks that it is not enough
to be a good person in this world. To borrow an overused phrase; truth be told.
Awareness of Coetzee's
techniques as a literary craftsman has been heightened over the years, from the
first adventurous foray into his post-apartheid universe up to the more complex
and dangerous era in which we find ourselves today. The directness and
chiselled nature of Coetzee's use of the present tense is as enduring to me now
as it was when I read the strikingly controversial and multi-layered opening
line of DISGRACE;
" For a man of his age,
fifty-two, divorced, he has, to his mind, solved the problem of sex rather
well. "
(C) ALTERNATIVE WORLDS IN
FICTION
I recently viewed BICENTENNIAL
MAN and I, ROBOT for the umpteenth time. We know that it is in the
science-fiction genre and that it is futuristic account of what we know as
modern life. It is a philosophical and thought-provoking account of a utopian
world, but its world is also dystopian in the sense that this future world is
no better than our present.
Mechanised, regimental thoughts
and actions are foregrounded by robots, but deceptively manifests itself in in
humans as well. The protagonists challenge this process as robots evolve their
thought processes and develop emotions once only perceived by humans.
Will Smith’s lucid portrayal
of a hardened streetwise detective is to my mind, the perfective embodiment of
Zamyatin’s version of the underground man, D-503 in WE, pioneered by
Dostoevsky. He is perceptively neither a villain, nor a hero. Mayakosky’s
portraiture of the individual also comes to mind in I, ROBOT.
Perfectionism and bliss is
offered to corporatized societies. It is crass manipulation of a few over many
for material and hegemonic gain.
– Jorge
Amado
THE CITY
OF ILHEUS AS PROTAGONIST
The city of Ilheus represents progress and
desire, and serves as a link between the old and new of the Latin American
society it holds. As the old are left behind at the beginning of the story, it
is “Progress” which the city of Ilheus
comes to represent, against which the old traditions and its characters,
Colonel Ramiro Bastos at the forefront, act as its antagonist.
The narrator personalises Ilheus by giving
it a “ face “ (p 10) and calling it “ the Queen of Southern Bahia “ (p 12). Not
only does the narrator introduce Ilheus as a symbol of progress, but, like its
women, as a magnificent, aesthetic foundation of its beauty.
Like human frailty, the narrator reminds us
that this beautiful city was once in
pain and turmoil and that not without pain and suffering, it emerges as the “
Queen “ it now is. Ilheus was once the subject of a “ period of struggle for
possession “ (p15) where men invaded untouched forests in search of riches,
fighting violently over disputed tracts of land, and inhumanely and unjustly
laying to waste the weak.
It is alleged that the city’s progress is
inherently evil as the traditional, but superstitiously religious Dona Arminda
explains;
“ The devil has taken possession of everybody in Ilheus. All they think of is
money and bigness. “ (p 34)
THE FOUR
CHAPTERS’ TITLES; NAMED AFTER WOMEN, ITS REPRESENTATION AND SYMBOLISM
In the context of Ilheus society, Ofenisia
is descended from the once-rich, aristocratic inhabitors of Ilheus, the Avilas
family (p 25). Her love affair with an Emperor, Pedro II, is part of Ilheus
folklore. As a prominent woman she is forced to fight for her place in the
South American sun against the patriarchal stubbornness of her dominant male
peer, one Colonel Luis Antonio d’ Avila (pp 26, 27).
Essentially, while Malvina and Gabriella
represent the future, Ofenisia represents the past where “it is forgotten by
the citizens of Ilheus…old tales and legends had disappeared forever” (p 28).
In the context of both Ilheus and its men, Ofenisia
is as the chapter’s title (p 5) explains, a listless, soft, tender, oppressed,
slow-moving and slack woman. She is thus easily exploited by Ilheus society and
its men (p 40).
In the context of Ilheus
society, Gloria represents the standard Ilheus women who aspire to be loved by the rich and powerful men of
Ilheus, to wear the finest clothes and live in the largest and most luxurious
houses. As “ Gloria’s Lament “ (p96)
attests, she is a lonely and bored woman, satiated and saturated by her
Colonel’s lavish gifts and frigid kisses, lusting for physical attention and
longing for true love.
In the context of the men, she represents
man’s desire for the woman. She herself is vain and conceited, wanting men,
power, glory and all material possessions for herself.
Malvina is young in body and spirit, strong
and mentally independent, ideological and ambitious. She represents the future
of Ilheus, and indeed of the emancipated woman in Brazilian society.
Both Gloria and
Gabriella are desirably women and are thus desired by the men of Ilheus.
Gloria, well-heeled and well-dressed, remains rooted in a traditional, colonial
past, while Gabriella, a beautiful, sensual and down to earth mulatto girl,
excitingly represents the future of the city in terms of its cultural heritage
and industry.
Gabriella brings
to Ilheus a free spirit and a devil-may-care attitude towards life and people.
She also brings a high work ethic. She is artistic and colourful and
unintentionally pleases the men around her.
Gabriella,
although keenly attached to her employer, partner and lover, Nacib Saad, is not
in love with him, but rather, in love with life.
Gabriella
unintentionally attracts the attention of the men in Ilheus, young and old, old
and new, rich and poor. While she just wants to enjoy her life humbly and work
dedicatingly in Nacib’s kitchen, men want to sleep with her. She drives men
mad, as it were, in her freedom to pervert and please sexually. They fall in
love with her, while she treats her relations with them as nothing more than
unserious pleasure.
BRIEF PORTRAITS OF MUNDINHO FALCAO
AND COLONEL RAMIRO BASTOS
Mundinho Falcao
is modern and open-minded, “ well-dressed, clean-shaven “ (p 39). He is open to
new avenues and ideas, whether it is related to religion, politics, industry,
or even love. He is labelled as a man “ with vision, who can promote progress “
(p 21).
He has all the
essential qualities for doing well in creating wealth and establishing progress
in Ilheus. He has “ boldness, good sense, a head for business, and a
willingness to work “ (p40). His partnership with Nacib Saad is crucial to the story as it and Nacib’s relationship
with Gabriella corresponds poignantly with his failed love affair in Rio which
is revealed as “ an impossible passion to be rooted out of his heart and
thoughts “ (p40).
Falcao
undoubtedly represents progress in Ilheus and is the ideal candidate to bring
this progress, encouraging and motivating the citizens to embrace change and
move forward boldly. In so doing he opposes the patriarchal, backward-thinking
land owner, Colonel Ramiro Bastos.
Nacib serves as
a model citizen alongside Falcao as he overhauls his run-down bar into a
well-heeled bar and bistro which caters for every whim and fancy, not only in
food and drink, of the influential people of Ilheus. They come to his bar to
discuss the changes brought about by Falcao and the way forward. For as the
text states, “ Mundinho Falcao not only believed in the progress of Ilheus: he
sought to promote it “ (p 11).
It is Falcao who
raises the “ burning issue “ of “ dredging the bay “ (p 1), an exercise
essential to Ilheus’ progress.
Colonel Amancia
Leal, however, argues;
“ Who brought
about this progress? Wasn’t it us the planters? “ (p 46) It is correctly
countered that things in Ilheus have changed and with it the city’s needs.
Colonel Ramiro
Bastos represents the colonial influence of Ilheus and its violent past. He is
stubbornly opposed to any progress and the changes it brings, preferring things
to stay as they are. Having said that he remains an influential and powerful
man, and traditional and religious family values remain rooted in Ilheus
society even though it is no longer part of the indigene.
His arguments
against change and progress could be valid if they were not hypocritical and
conceited. He argues correctly that modernism brings corruption and immorality,
but Ilheus society is already corrupt and immoral!
THEMES :
LOVE, POLITICS, PATRIARCHY, CULTURE, MODERNISM, TRANSITIONS
The sub-theme of
transformation is universal and raised early by the narrator in his foreword;
“ New streets
had been opened, automobiles brought in, mansions built, roads constructed,
newspapers published, clubs organized – Ilheus was transformed. But the ways
men think and feel evolve more slowly. Thus it has always been, in every
society “ (p 2).
This passage is
important because it raises other issues such as patriarchy, culture and
modernism which the city of Ilheus takes time to deal with.
The theme of
love and the love story of Nacib and Gabriella are central to the story;
“ …the story of
their passion was central to the entire life of the town at this time when
progress and the innovations of civilizations were transforming the face of
Ilheus “ (p 10).
In one sentence
the main theme of progress is denoted alongside the fabula’s sub-themes of love
and transformation.
“ The year of
the political struggle between Mundinho Falcao, cacao exporter, and Colonel
Ramiro Bastos, the old political boss (p 9) – is indicative of typical
rivalries between conservative land-owners and liberal reformists and
supporters of modernism which have existed in South American towns since their
inhabitants and colonisers invaded once-pristine lands in search of riches such
as gold, and laying claim to vast tracts of land unheard of and unseen in their
motherland.
Hinting at the
sub-theme of patriarchy it is indicated by the narrator during the festival of
the city’s patron saint, Saint George that “ churchgoing (p 6) is for women.
The role of the fiery land-owners is to rather support the church materially
while they influence the rest of Ilheus and its citizens.
As we observe
the city’s culture we see a subtle blend of the European Catholic customs with
that of the ancient inhabitants of South America, such as the Incas, who
worshipped the sun and the moon;
“ …it was then
that the miracle happened. No, black clouds did not suddenly fill the sky…but a
pale moon appeared…” ( 8)
The narrator
twists historical facts subtly and ironically to emphasises the barbarity of
the settlers in Ilheus and its surroundings. Referring to the actions of the
town’s patron St George, he remarks that “ he saw the Indians massacre the
first colonists and in turn he slaughtered and enslaved “ (p 8). An
understanding of South America’s colonial past enables us to agree with the
narrator’s sentiment that it is indeed the so-called civilised settlers who are
barbarians. The inhabitants from the outlands, such as Gabriella, are
mysteriously possessed with unknown beauty, customs and manners which stem from
their ancestors. The stoic Nacib Saad’s family in turn bring observed civilized
customs inherited from their Islamic religion and culture.
THE WORK OF ANDRE P BRINK AND J M COETZEE HAS BEEN WIDELY
CRITIQUED.
Brink has been incorrectly accused of plagiarism and
exploitation because of his liberal use of intertextuality in referencing
colonialism, history (1975, 2001, 2003) and other literary works including
those of Coetzee. Brink’s DONKERMAAN (2004) directly references Coetzee’s
DISGRACE (2000);
“ I rest my case on the rights of desire …On the god who
makes even the small birds quiver “
-
J M Coetzee
The liminality of Coetzee’s works have been widely praised
and his significant use of the present
immediacy of the narrated events… “ His literary texts are often no
longer than three hundred pages. DISGRACE and his autobiographical novels; BOYHOOD (1998) , YOUTH (2003) and SUMMERTIME
(2010), are four such examples.
In this comparative analysis of two literary works from the
same genre of biographical writing, but in different languages, I have selected
Brink’s ‘VURK IN DIE PAD (2009) and Coee’s abiogphical trilogy. Brink has noted
that his biography is his memoir. In the context of this comparative essay I
will quote from brink’s translated English text, A FORK IN THE ROAD (2009). In
order to fully grasp the effectiveness of Coetzee’s postmodern autobiographical
account of his life, written as fiction, it is necessary to refer to all three
works as opposed to just one literary text. To reiterate, as Derek Attridge
comments, the use of the present tense heightens the immediacy of narrated
events which with specific reference to BOYHOOD and YOUTH is conducted in the
third person.
In response to the unfair charge of plagiarism it is noted
that Brink acknowledges his sources and makes reference to the origination of
his quotations. Prior to the foreword of his memoir he lists acknowledgements
and references to permissions granted to him.
Thematically there is a sense of alienation from which the
temporal words in which the narrating “ I “ of Brink’s memoir from as distant a
location as Paris ( 2009: 129), and the life and thoughts of the protagonist,
John Coetzee, from an equally distant location in London ( 2003 ), are narrated
in the autobiographical trilogy. This trilogy has recently been re-published in
once revised edition entitled SCENES FROM PROVINCIAL LIFE.
Themes of postcolonialism, apartheid and post-apartheid are
also foregrounded. Rink’s role is active
comparison to Coetzee’s passive third person narrator. Historically
Brink was actively involved in the revolt against apartheid and the racist
ideology of the National Party. His support of the liberation movement of the
African National Congress, has been unequivocal and unapologetic. It is
unfortunate that at the time of composing his memoir and publication of ‘N VURK
IN DIE PAD, he could not devote more narrative time to his objection to the misrule
and corruption within today’s ruling party.
“ Today it has changed, and the ANC must bear responsibility
for this: because today I find that there are some blacks standing between
Africa and me. “ ( 401 ) Coetzee’s participation in political discourse is
reluctant and distant, and confined to his art of narrative fiction
writing.
Both author’s works are informed and influenced by previous
classical works. Brink expresses fondness and admiration respectively for
Miguel Cervantes and his DON QUIOTE, and Albert Camus and his LE PESTE. Brink
was infamously and again, unfairly criticised for his use of the French Nobel
Laureate’s work. He acknowledge’s Camus’ influence in his own work which
produced DIE MUUR VAN DIE PES. In Coetzee’s YOUTH, the protagonist’s greatest
influences are Sterne and his TRISTRAM SHANDY, a story within a story, and the
writings of Ford Maddox Ford;
“ With freedom to do as he pleases, he has soon read to
the end of the sprawling corpus of
Ford’s writings. The time is nigh for him to deliver his judgement. “ ( 112 )
Whilst Brink is unapologetic for his stance against
apartheid and his Calvinist upbringing, and yet, expressing a fondness for
rugby, one of the then preserves of the white Afrikaner – “ What had first
turned my interest into fanatic enthusiasm, was the All Black tour of South
Africa in 1949. “ – ( 64 ), Attridge points out that Coetzee’s autobiographies,
produced after the conclusion of the truth and Reconciliation Hearings of South
Africa, is self-confessional and theoretically, as a meta-fiction, it is
self-reflective ( pp 143, 144 ). He quotes Coetzee;
“ We can demarcate a mode of autobiographical writing that
we can call the confession (
Coetzee’s emphasis ), as distinct from the memoir
, and the apology , on the basis
of an underlying motive to tell an essential truth about the self. ” ( 144 )
The postmodern form of Coetzee’s work is significant in the
third instalment of the autobiography, SUMMERTIME ( 2010 ), where through a
biographical writer, Mr Vincent, based
London, and primary female antagonist, Margot, Adriana, Sophie ( part of
the text is divided into chapters bearing women’s names ) , the receiver learns
that John Coetzee is dead. The narrative, from BOYHOOD (2003) through to
SUMMERTIME , is chronological, however, during Vincent’s interviews with the
women in Coetzee’s life, the story of John Coetzee’s life and relationships are
told retrogressively.
Brink’s memoir, comparatively speaking, does not follow a
chronological order usually expected of a biography. In ‘N VURK IN DIE PAD,
Brink expresses a reluctance to write such an account of his life, and we can
therefor agree with him that is work is first and foremost a memoir. Most of
the narrative space is taken up by critical accounts of other people’s lives,
significantly that of the late Afrikaans poet, Ingrid Jonker ( 90 ) , who
tragically committed suicide during the nineteen sixties. At the opening of
South Africa’s first democratic parliament, Nelson Mandela gave a fitting
eulogy to Ms Jonker with a reading of
her iconic poem, DIE KIND;
“ Indeed, the child is not dead, and now become a giant, is still
travelling in the wide world.
Without a pass. “ ( 112 )
Without a pass. “ ( 112 )
The protagonist, John Coetzee, through the focalisation of
the third person narrator, acknowledges an incapacity to conduct meaningful
relationships with the female “ other “ , while Brink, married at least three
times, currently married to the Polish-born writer, Katarina, younger than his
children from previous relationships, accepts no culpability for the state in
which he leaves his female companions, including Ms Jonker.
The examination of Brink and Coetzee as biographical and
literary writers is interdisciplinary and relevant in light of their prominence in and
contribution to South African literature and the different approaches taken in
their writing. Their literary excellence and contributions to literature have
been acknowledged broadly. They are both educators, having simultaneously
served as professors of English at the University of Cape Town. Brink was twice
nominated for the prestigious Booker Prize, while Coetzee, alongside Nadine
Gordimer, the Canadian, Margaret Atwood, and the Australian, Peter Carey, has
won the award twice for his works; THE LIFE AND TIMES OF MICHEAL K ( 1983 ) and
DISGRACE . He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2003.
In commenting on the oppression caused by colonialism,
apartheid, crime and the new hegemonies present in the world today, both authors
have produced texts which have been described as controversial for its choice
of themes and characterisation. Works by Brink such as ‘N DROE WIT SEISOEN and
KENNIS VAN DIE AAND ( 2007 ), have been
banned by the apartheid regime, while Coetzee’s work, WAITING FOR THE
BARBARIANS and IN THE HEART OF THE COUNTRY, remained unblemished by censors who
were subdued in their interpretation and understanding of his works. Coetzee’s
DISGRACE, however, did not escape the scrutiny and “ criticism “ of the politicians, with the obverse
charge of racism being brought before the Human Rights Commission by the ruling
African National Congress, in the new democratic dispensation of South Africa
and an era of freedom of speech and expression, attempts to ban his work
failed.
Brink, in spite of rising crime levels in South Africa, his
family having become victims of crime, chose to remain in South Africa, while
Coetzee emigrated to Australia shortly
after the publication of DISGRACE. As early as BOYHOOD, the protagonist
rejects his Afrikaans heritage, and as early as YOUTH, he acts on his desire to
leave the country indefinitely.
The Belgian scholar, Gerard, proclaims that the art of
creative writing can contribute towards South Africa’s ” cross-cultural fertilisation “ which is
facilitated by familiarity with the experience, plight and preoccupations of
different ethnic and cultural groups. “ ( Oliphant, 2011: 56 ). This is evident
in comparing the work of Brink, the Afrikaans writer, and Coetzee, the English
writer. An overview of Chapman’s works SOUTH AFRICAN LITERATURES ( 2003 ), and
S A LIT ( 2011 ) substantiates the possibilities of comparing literatures from
different cultures and languages. The comparisons between Brink and Coetzee are
complex, but not problematic, in light of Coetzee’s reluctance to acknowledge
his Afrikaner identity.
“ He thinks of Afrikaners as people in a rage all the time
because their hearts are hurt. He thinks of the English as people who have not
fallen into a rage because they live behind walls and guard their hearts well.
This is one of his theories about the English and the
Afrikaners. “ ( 73 )
My aesthetic views on literature and writing
can be explained by relating my experience with literature, mostly as a reader.
As a lay reader it is essential that I understand what I am reading. As a
scholar of literature it is necessary that the density of all the available
literary devices, used in context contribute to my reading experience. The
reading of any novel, theoretical text, literary journal, collection of short stories,
or poetry must not be arduous, but at least enjoyable.
In the early stages of the reading
experience it is quite common to put a book down,close it and put it away. The
story may have been dull and uninteresting, or the length of the text may have been
too daunting. Today, the scholar is more selective in his choice of reading
matter, armed with knowledge of the literary canon.
It is argued that the length of a book is
not a measure of its literary quality. This has often been a misconception
among new readers. J M Coetzee’s DISGRACE is just over two-hundred pages long,
but is considered to be a great work of literary art. The Booker Prize awarded
to this novel is testament to this. Wilbur Smith remains one of the world’s
best-selling novelists. His escapist adventure stories, well-researched as it
is, has never won any major literary awards. Coetzee has won the Booker Prize
twice. His novels are short, yet better researched than Smith’s. There is more
fact than fiction in Coetzee’s oevre than Smith’s library of over thirty
novels. Therein lies the rub, as Shakespeare said.
One of the great novels of the twentieth
century is F Scott Fitzgerald’s THE GREAT GATSBY. It is very short, just over a
hundred and thirty pages long, but aesthetic pleasure is derived from the
quality of Fitzgerald’s prose. And yet around the same time that Fitzgerald
wrote his novel, the Irish writer, James Joyce produced the more remarkable
ULYSSES. It is one of the longest books written, famous for its innovative use
of the modernistic device of stream of consciousness writing. Joyce was not
afraid of experimenting with the literary art form. Could we label him a
writer’s Picasso? Writers such as Virginian Wolf continued this trend
successfully.
In later years Coetzee also lent himself to
experimentation and in DUSKLANDS he produced two stories within a story. The
stories of Eugene Dawn and Jacobus Coetzee are both a postmodern and
postcolonial study of the treatment of the
“ other “. The overlapping of journals and diaries in DIARY OF A BAD
YEAR, a semi-biographical study of a wide range of topics from child
pornography to terrorism to America’s war on terror, is another example of
experimentation. Its weakness is that it rambles, having to fill gaps
continuously as if there is a fear of running out of something to say, or of
not filling the pages.
Long novels are a rarity these days. It is
perhaps the ever-increasing demands of a technologically advanced society with
a short attention span that has
influenced publishers to discourage this form. Certainly economics does have a
say here. There can be no guarantee that a modern day twenty-first century
James Joyce will sell. Gone are the days of Tolstoyan epics. The children’s
book genre witnessed a sensation in the HARRY POTTER series by J K Rowling. I
sense a revival in the fantasy-fiction form in the mould of Tolkien’s LORD OF
THE RINGS trilogy.
Thankfully institutions such as Pulitzer and
Booker will endear publishers to seek out literature of a high aesthetic
quality and ensure that writers continue to push the boundaries of literary
innovations.
The Booker Prize awarded to J M Coetzee’s
controversial DISGRACE and its corresponding praise and criticism, both
subjective and objective, vindicates my view that the novel has great
aesthetic value as a literary work of
art. It has both inherent and consequential value as literature and can be
placed in the category of high art.
DISGRACE has inherent value through its
scholarly use of literary devices and its sophisticated use of language which
is aesthetically pleasing to the reading eye. A popular phrase used in literary
circles to describe Coetzee’s prose is “ narrative which is chiselled, and
razor-sharp “ . It cuts to the bone.
Creative writing teachers have advised against the merits of using the
present tense narrative voice and advocated use of the more familiar past
tense. I favour use of the present tense, because it places the story in
context with its immediate space and is dramatic.
The opening sentence to DISGRACE is powerful
and memorable;
“ For a man of his age, fifty-two, divorced,
he has to his mind, solved the problem of sex rather well. “ (1)
In one short sentence the reader is
introduced to David Lurie. The reader’s expectations, already heightened
through the suggestion of sex, may be perturbed to find that Soraya, a
prostitute, is “surprisingly moralistic”. Lurie does not question her morality,
but the reader may. The first page thus sets the tone for what is to follow and
invites a psycho-analytical and consequential analysis of the text.
Themes of alienation, postcolonialism and
intertextuality are used in conjunction with the theme of ethics.
The narrative derives its consequential
value not only in characters’ responses to the behaviour of the story’s
protagonist, and to each other, but in the readers’ responses to the text. The
reader’s awareness of Lurie’s predicament and his unaccustomed position in a
changing landscape is accentuated through the foregrounding of the
above-mentioned literary devices.
The protagonist’s alienation and isolation
in a new administrative order, and his love for Romantic poetry is highlighted through intertextual references
to Byron and Wordsworth, two Romantic poets. The state of affairs on Lucy’s
farm before and after her rape is emphasised through Lurie’s critical concern
for his daughter’s wellbeing and his comments about the rapists and her
neighbour, Petrus, particularly when Petrus dismisses the behaviour of the African youths.
Coetzee’s deployment of the intertext is
masterful. He juxtaposes present day events in the lives of Lurie, his
daughter, Lucie, his student, Melanie, and Petrus, Lucie’s custodian, precisely
with past historical events such as the life and times of Byron, the Romantic
poet. His concern with colonialism is influential in lending detail to his
characters’ interactions with the landscape, both physical and metaphysical.
J M Coetzee has often been described as a
literary aesthete. He does not advocate such a loud response to the
consequential value of his novel, however, he is assured that his work is
ultimately of more inherent value as a literary tour de force.
9 -
APPROACHES TO DISGRACE
In this essay I consider which approach, choosing from sender centred
approaches, message centred approaches, receiver centre approaches and context
centred approaches, is best suited to describing J M Coetzee’s DISGRACE.
At this point it is apt to quote the UNISA Study Guide, Introduction to
Literary Theory while considering which of the above approaches are best
suited;
“ For the Romantics, poets and
artists are endowed with powers of imagination that are not only superior to
those of ordinary mortals, but are creative in the strict sense of the word:
that is, the poet, by his imagination, brings something new into existence “ (
55 ) .
It is both coincidental and incidental that Coetzee makes intertextual
reference to Romantic poets such as Byron and Wordsworth. Is Coetzee the
scholar hinting at his own approach? Is he teasing the reader to an irrational,
context centred response to his work as the African National Congress did when
it critised the novel in a Marxist context, accusing Coetzee of racism.
The Study Guide further mentions the conception of the philosophers
Locke and Hume that “ the imagination cannot produce anything new but works on
pre-given impressions to bring about novel or innovative associations between
them without bringing about something which is so new that it could be said not
to have existed at all. “ A good example from the text is the intertextual use
of the Oedipus myth and the line “ Call no man happy until he is dead “ ( 2 ).
It is creative in the sense that it sets up the reader for further questioning
of the story’s protagonist where earlier his sexual habitué is mentioned. Is Lurie an Oedipus Rex? Is there an
underlying reason for his powerful and disrespectful treatment of women?
While explicit mention is made
of it, the myth of Adamastor is a strong allusion throughout the opening
pages and first part of DISGRACE. Lurie can be seen as the white colonial
aggressor whose first prey is Soraya, the moralistic Malay prostitute who wards
off an obsessed Lurie. The Coloured student, Melanie Isaacs, takes action
against Lurie for raping her, and he is summarily disciplined. They prey is
victorious and the hunter is vanquished.
Coetzee innovates and pushes the
boundaries of his prose as a postcolonial discourse. The narrative is rich with
intertextual references to past philosophical assumptions on life and art,
particularly in the genre of poetry. David Lurie spends many hours in the
library filling already thick files with more notes on the poet, Byron. Melanie
Isaacs observes that he has many books on Byron ( 11-15 ) . Lurie also quotes
Wordsworth to his students ( 21 ). There
is also a subtle reference to Thomas Hardy’s JUDE THE OBSCURE when Lurie is
treating and caring for dogs.
His clever recollection of his
own previous work does not go unnoticed. After losing Soraya, Lurie is on the
prowl once more. At some stage he liases with a new secretary in the university
department where he teaches ( 8, 9 ) . Her name is Dawn. We first encounter
Eugene Dawn in DUSLANDS, Coetzee’s first postcolonial novel. We can perhaps
agree that Coetzee’s approach is sender-centred.
A message centred approach can
only be considered if we evaluate the text for its use of formal devices and on
the basis of empirical evidence of the truths that the narrative may raise.
Here, we do not evaluate the text purely on its use of literary devices. There
is no deviation from conventional narrative techniques, and Coetzee’s use of
the present tense may be modernistic, but is not deviational as it places the
narrative in its proper context, in the here and now.
There is a
case for considering the context centred approach only if evaluating the text
from an institutional, cultural, social and political viewpoint as the ANC
attempted to do. There is a case for considering the context centred approach
when taking into account philosophical views raised in the narrative, however,
such views are sparse. There is no cultural, social, or political sign-posting.
The protagonist in the story does not raise political objections to his
resignation form the university where he teaches, but claims to be an adherent
to Eros as he attempts to justify his unethical behaviour with a student. There
is nothing political about his alienation in a strange learning environment.
Lurie does not object to his daughter’s partnership with a black man from a
cultural viewpoint and it is not a socially accepted norm to rape a woman,
black or white, young or old.
A receiver
centred approach can be considered when it is the reader who is responsible for
the text’s aesthetic value. In this regard the reader does not make such a
contribution. The text is already of intrinsic and extrinsic value and does not
need to be read in order to be defined.
I propose that
the sender centred approach is best suited to the text, mainly on the basis of
Coetzee’s use of the intertextual device. It is scholarly and creative. Coetzee
has read widely on subjects ranging from philosophy to poetry. He uses the
intertextual references to great effect, blending it with events in the story
and its characterisation.
10 - A STATE OF GRACE
Disgrace is a close observation og psychological rape and repressionof
the suffering “ others “ by man. In J M
COTZEE AND THE ETHICS OF READING Derek Attridge questions whether DISGRACE
hampers efforts of re-building the country ( Attridge, University of
KwaZulu-Natal Press 2005: 164 ). Athol
Fugard, in the “ London Sunday Times “ , angrily rejects the notion of
accepting the rape of a white woman as compensation for the atrocities of the apartheid
past.
It is not the case. J M Coetzee is not attempting to reconcile pre- and
post-apartheid South Africa. As Attridge suggests, it is a condemnation of “ the dehumanizing effects of the great rationalisation ( Coetzee,
DISGRACE, 2000: 3 ) “ of end-of century global capitalism “ . Referencing the
classical myth of Hesiod’s account of the successive ages of men, it is aptly
described as “ The Age of Iron “ ( Attridge, 162 ).
DISGRACE shows how the wheels come off under a new regime of moral
order. There is “ power “ , but no “ glory “ . “ These are puritanical times “
( 66 ) , laments the novel’s protagonist, David Lurie.
Lurie’s metaphorical ill-treatment of women is a consequence of a
postcolonial and post-apartheid patriarchy. A “ clerk in a post-religious age “
( 4 ), he longs for old ways of teaching, reading and writing. It is to the
youth that we must look positively and ironically it is youths that gang-rape
his child. “ It happens every day, ever hour, every minute “ ( 98 ) .
His arrival in Salem ( 59 ) studiously observes his unemotional,
unendearing approach towards the unemotional, unendearing and detached New Age
as he moves unfeelingly closer to his “ day of testing “ ( 94 ).
The choice of destination of Lurie’s moment of truth is historically
significant. The first English settlers arrived in the Eastern Cape in 1820.
Salem alludes to the town of the same name in America where Puritans first
settled in the seventeenth century. It is notorious for its “ witch trials “ .
The intertextuality of preoccupations with the poet, Byron, and the
past, is telling. Lurie’s amoral sexual behaviour is compared to Byron’s own
sexual depravity. They do not imagine women as suitable intellectual partners,
but rather as their “ objects of desire “ . Byron is an icon of the great
Romantic age. On Lucy’s ( Lurie’s daughter ) smallholding in Salem in the
Eastern Cape, Lurie reads “ Byron’s
letters of 1820 “ ( 87 ) !
significant “ other “ , Lucy, who is later raped. Circumstances
worsening, he awakens to the moral consequences of his actions ( the “ rape “
of his student, Melanie Isaacs ( 25-29 ) and questions his behaviour towards
women.
“ Every woman I have been close to has taught me something about myself.
To that extent they have made me a betther person. “
“ I hope you are not claiming the reverse as well. That knowing you has
turned your women into better people . “ ( 70 )
The suffering of “ others “ , no longer in women only, but also in the
dogs on Lucy’s smallholding and Bev Armstrong’s clinic, and in Petrus’ ( Lucy’s
co-proprietor ) goats, becomes important to Lurie. Tied to a pole, the goats
are set free by him.
“ A bond seems to have come into existence between himself and the two
Persians, he does not know how. “ ( 126 )
Lucy’s marriage to Petrus is courageous, but unbelievable. This fictional
event is a significant counter to the changing cultural and economic landscape
of the new South Africa. Rather than mourn the passing of the old order as
Lurie does, she chooses to adapt and is victorious. She advises him, “ You
should try and be a good person too “ . Reminiscent of Mrs Curren’s confession
in AGE OF IRON that “ to be a good
person is not enough “ ( 165 ) Lurie concedes, “ A good person. Not a bad
resolution to make, in dark times “ ( 216 ).
Lucy masks the “ disgrace “ of her rape and the bringing up of a bastard
child in a new world. So too does the narrative mask the vivid descriptions of
her ordeal, unlike rape scenes of the colonial order in earlier texts of
DUSKLANDS and IN THE HEART OF THE COUNTRY. While Lurie struggles with his own “
disgrace “ and the suffering of “ others “ reflected in the animals, Lucy
remains a trustworthy human custodian.
According to Attridge, Coetzee questions the notion of cost. There must
be a way of building a new, just state, “ not founded on the elimination of
unpredictability, singularity and excess. “ It is a state which responds to the
“ other “ and what has made the “ other “ other. It recognises its past, and
puts trust in a different future. It could be called a;
“ State of Grace “ . ( 191 )
In J M Coetzee’s literary oevre, I propose that a number of ideologies,
particularly power and the alienation of the individual, rather than the
collective hegemonic ideologies of any one society, are presented in his texts,
from his first postmodernistic experimentation in DUSKLANDS ( 1974 ) to his
recent autobiographical SUMMERTIME. The postcolonial and postmodernist
approaches to societies, past and present, the intertextual approaches to
politics and history, as well as Coetzee’s ethical ( moral ) and aesthetic (
literary ) approaches to society and its mores support the presence of these
ideologies.
Taking into account a number of postcolonial sub-themes in Coetzee’s
texts such as the ant-war and ant-colonial themes described in DUSKLANDS, the
ant-apartheid theme in AGE OF IRON (1990) and the controversial rant against
crime and violence in DISGRACE ( 2000 ) , his literary accounts are comparative
to different ideologies in alternative postcolonial, feminist and even Marxist
texts, such as those by Nadine Gordimer, Tsitsi Dangarembga and most notably,
Toni Morrison.
While Joseph Conrad’s epochal HEART OF DARKNESS ( 1902 ) which serves as
a loud, visual protest against colonialism, may be a precursor to Coetzee’s body
of work, I suspect that the concern with security, whether of the human body
and its material collection of goods and collectibles, or its emotions,
particularly when confronted with the “ other “, or the soul when the moment of
truth arrives for any one of Coetzee’s characters, may yet emerge as a key
ideology alongside humanistic views of society. The singeing of David Lurie’s
hair by his daughter’s black rapists is a significant moment in this context.
Indeed, shortly after receiving his second Booker Prize for DISGRACE, concerned
with the rising crime rates in South Africa, Coetzee, like many other white
South Africans, emigrates to Australia.
Addressing the issue of violent crime in a new South Africa, an analogy
which is ironically first uttered by the Nationalist government of F W de
Klerk, Coetzee is harshly criticized by its successors, Thabo Mbeki’s African National Congress
government. It is the self-same government which also expresses ignorance at
the handling of the chronic HIV-Aids virus. The ANC’s response to Coetzee’s
opening and deconstruction of a patriarchal society is hegemonic and Marxist.
Purporting to sovietise South African society, thus perpetuating the
aforementioned Nationalist government’s ideology of a separate, but equal society
and aiding George Orwell’s prophecies in ANIMAL FARM and NINETEEN EIGHTY-FOUR.
Coetzee’s version of the ideologies mentioned does create an opportunity
for the study of the relationship between the text and the social. In telling a
story, whether narrating the planned genocide of Vietnamese women and children
in DUSKLANDS, or an elderly woman’s tryst with a vagrant in AGE OF IRON,
whether telling the story of a father’s search for his delinquent son in THE
MASTER OF ST PETERSBURG ( 1994 ), or the musing of an ageing writer in DIARY OF
A BAD YEAR ( 2007 ), he is sending out a message which is processed and
interpreted by the receiver of his message. Going against the grain of Marxist
ideologies, Coetzee does not dictate how society should render itself, and
instead offers a postcolonial perspective of the mistreatment of marginalized
pockets of society. The phallocentric overexploitation of Lucy by black youths,
and the coloured student, Melanie, by her white professor, is a case in point.
While attempts at rationalizing are made, no foregone conclusions are drawn.
The ANC’s Marxist misinterpretations of J M Coetzee’s work and J M
Coetzee the artist, notwithstanding scholarly approaches and interpretations of
his work, are widespread. Taking into account the theorist Louis Althusser’s
structuralist analysis of ideology and Eagleton and Macherey’s constructive
theories of literature, the dissection of a body of work such as Coetzee’s,
opens up the possibility of arriving at new ideologies of thought and proposals.
But in the context of the ANC’s criticism I propose that an aesthetic ideology
of race, still deeply ingrained in the psyche of South Africans of all cultures
and in spite of attempts to disperse of this discriminatory ideology
institutionalised by the previous Nationalist regime, remains pejorative. It is
frowned upon in most societies, yet it is still practised, even if only in the
subconscious. I further propose that Coetzee’s text opjectivises the very
question of racism, or race.
Comparing Coetzee’s DISGRACE with Achmat Dangor’s BITTER FRUIT as a
postcolonial, post-apartheid ethical discourse, raising ideologies of
aestheticism, racism, Marxism and Greek philosophy as a structuralist and
formalist exercise is not a difficult task as it reveals major flaws in
Dangor’s text, shortlisted for a Booker Prize, and strengthens Coetzee’s status
as South Africa’s eminent and most skilled living literary craftsman. The
reliance on vulgarity to alarm, or surprise readers on Dangor’s part does not
aid his text as a literary masterpiece alongside DISGRACE. Neither do the inept
references to Greek philosophy help. What Coetzee skilfully does is place words
on the page in the most astute, yet liminal manner, shocking and surprising his
readers through his characters’ actions, however wrong their choices. Dangor’s
characters lack credibility while we are tempted to sympathize with Coetzee’s
Lurie, his daughter, certainly Melanie the coloured university student, and
even Lucy’s black rapists who are perceived as victims of apartheid. Here, I
believe, apartheid, rather than inherent racism, is foregrounded as an ideology
which is disapproved of. The interracial relationship between Lucy and the
black landowner, Petrus, is recognised for its honour and practicalities, while
Dangor’s characters are deemed immoral harbingers carrying the weight of South
Africa’s racist past on their shoulders. We even sympathize with David Lurie,
not as a racist, but rather a stereotypical, patriarchal figure who is
conscious of his weaknesses and struggles to overcome physical desires of
sexual power and to become a “ good person “
Intertextuality, although not a major theme in Coetzee’s works, is
certainly a favoured theme of the author. He is meticulous in his detailed methodology
of recalling historical and political events. DUSKLANDS contextualises the
Vietnam war and South Africa’s difficult colonial past. THE MASTER OF ST
PETERSBURG deconstructs Dostoevsky’s masterpiece, CRIME AND PUNISHMENT, while
AGE OF IRON and DISGRACE recall South Africa’s hurtful past in the era of
institutionalized racism. Literary works such ELIZABETH COSTELLO and DIARY OF A
BAD YEAR offer a philosophical discourse on life dealing with the
aforementioned ideologies of human power struggles and postcolonial responses
to hegemonic struggles of the past.
The postmodern LIFE AND TIMES OF MICHEAL K, a personal favourite, offers
a glimpse of what a future South African landscape, still inclusive of a leafy
Kenilworth suburb, may look like. Written in the 1980’s it is never dated.
We cannot accuse Coetzee of being a chauvinist as we do not expect him
to invoke the feminist role as Atwood, Dangarembga and Morrison do in their own
post-feminist, postcolonial literary texts. He did, after all, invoke the
female form when challenging Daniel Defoe, himself accused of fraud and
plagiarism, in FOE. Indeed, we could argue disfavourably that plagiarism itself
is a rogue ideology and art form. The erstwhile soap opera writer, Daryl
Bristow-Bovey, could perhaps enlighten readers on this controversial genre.
Coetzee’s texts are never Marxist, and can never be, ultimately foregrounding
the individual in the social context in all of his literary texts.
The phallocentric tone of the classical genres has predominantly
portrayed women as minor characters. Coetzee overturns this tendency in FOE and
a woman’s story is told in a woman’s voice. I again propose that here Coetzee
famously presents the reader with the ideology of ethics which in FOE is
confined to the role of women in society.
The treatment of the “ other “ is foregrounded in a number of Coetzee’s
texts which bring into question man’s ethical behaviour. Good examples include
the treatment of Vietnamese victims of war in DUSKLANDS, vagrants and the youth
in AGE OF IRON, and the treatment of dogs in DISGRACE.
J M Coetzee rightfully entitles himself to comment on the issues of the
day. Here the political principle of considering the rights of citizens, a
Marxist principle of equality, can be discarded. Miller argues that contemporary
literary theory is “ fixated with power and the dimension of a social action. “
He does, to a degree, have a point when he says that power relations are
characterised by crude and subtle forms of inequality and domination. Such a
pository view can be vindicated when reading DISGRACE, but I do not believe
that was Coetzee’s intention. Coetzee is not guilty of what Miller calls a “
phallocentric system of thought “ when he offers alternative trains of thought
from characters such as Lucy, Mrs Curren and even Elizabeth Costello, a
post-feminist to boot.
Coetzee does not politicize his literature as I suspect Nadine Gordimer
and Andre P Brink do. He never favours one human dimension over another, so the
accusation of hegemony can also be discarded.
Geuss proposes that in an empirical study of human groups the scope of
enquiries may differ. To the letter, Coetzee does a comparison of different
groups and finds universal features in these groups. In explaining Geuss’s
theory of ideology we understand that “ the beliefs of individuals, or groups
are random and display coherency. “ Coetzee’s propagations are studiously
supported by available evidence. While Coetzee narrates lucidly on “ sadistic
desires “ and “ desires to enslave”, he cannot be accused of “ historical
materialism “. According to Lukac’s theory, Coetzee’s prose could be an
ideology of class consciousness. Coetzee’s writing is not dependent on
Althusser’s theory of structuralist effects in literature. Aesthetically,
Coetzee strives for the perfect literary form, but he always challenges
conventional social practices.
Macherey posits that; “ Ideology is a contradiction which is signalled
by what it does not say. “
By way of his taught, liminal narratives and terse dialogue between
characters, Coetzee says a lot and no stone is left unturned in unravelling the
very nature of the human psyche. We can discard Macherey’s theory for now. To
some degree, all writing is institutionalised, but Coetzee does attempt to go
against the grain. Hence the postmodernist cap that he wears, suits him.
The political hegemony of the present, which Coetzee consistently
challenges, the uncertainties of today’s societies, wringing their hands in
despair over issues such as food and material security, let alone emotional
security, global warming and climate change, as well as war and the “ way of
the gun “ immortalised in his first book, DUSKLANDS, while other scribes
persist with what I like to call the “ One Day in the Life “ syndrome, leads me
to conclude that it is not long before a new as yet unnamed literary form is
croncretised as an ideology. Kafka and Solsenitzyn may yet be forgotten, and
Coetzee is not alone in practising this twent-first century art form, but in
the perceived twilight of his years, he is at the forefront of his genre.
– Achmat Dangor
A BITTER DISCOURSE ON ACHMAT DANGOR’S BITTER FRUIT
In this note we comment on three major events in BITTER FRUIT ( Dangor,
A, 2001 Kwela Books: Cape Town ) which necessitate a process of testimony,
evaluation and self-discovery towards a goal of change and healing in the
context of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s objectives. The rubric
states;
“ BITTER FRUIT was written to echo the sentiments of the T R C “
Identifying ways in which Achmat Dangor deploys his novelistic
techniques, we discuss whether or not he is successful in echoing these
sentiments.
Dangor uses intertextual references to past and present political events
in South Africa, thus devising a realistic narrative. The best example of this
is the Truth and Reconciliation process itself. The protagonist, Silas Ali,
representing the Government at the commission, is a victim of the apartheid
past alongside his wife, Lydia. They do not testify, but are haunted by the
memory of their traumatic ordeals where Ali’s wife is raped by the security
operative, Du Boise.
Dangor uses racial stereotyping effectively. Characters are realistic as
they converse derogatorily in the familiar South African vernacular. Vulgarity
is regrettably excessive. The most common stereotypical characters are the ex-M
K cadres ( “ freedom fighters ‘ ) turned bureaucrats, the security operative
turned aged, defenceless pensioner, the guilt-ridden Jewish liberal who plays
rugby “ to demonstrate his manhood “ ( p 63 ) and works in Government for
worthy causes, and the widely used “ bushie ‘ , a derogatory term for the
Southern African “ coloured man “ .
There is an excessive preoccupation with sex, rape and incest,
sub-themes which appear to predominate Dangor’s literary works. For example;
“ A penis. “
“ Hell, Lydia. “
“ Well, we all have to, all the time, hide penises up our fannies, the
recollection of them being there. Even the ones we never invited in. “
And:
“ He called me a nice wild half-kaffir cunt, a lekker wilde Boesman
poes. “ ( pp 18, 19 )
Amidst the explicitness, the loosely connotated word “ making love “ is
not agreed with. We cannot “ make love “ if we do not love someone internally.
Rather, we are having sex which in the context of BITTER FRUIT, is sometimes
brutal. J M Coetzee’s character, David Lurie, acknowledges the lack of love in
DISGRACE ( Coetzee, J 2000 Vintage: London ), and echoes my sentiment “ rather
well “ ( p 1 ).
In a mocking reference to Greek icons which is futile, senseless,
pretentious and irrelevant, the narrative degenerates suggestively into
pornography, as the following example shows;
“ Masturbating to the rhythm of Homeric hexameters . “ ( p 30 )
The motivation for using excessive vulgar language which is sexually
explicit is understood, but not supported. Writing DISGRACE, J M Coetzee does
justice to emphasising the horror of apartheid and abuse of its victims without
resisting to such explicitness. Coetzee’s prose is “ chiselled “ , razor-sharp
and aesthetically astute in describing the ironic ills of apartheid.
I suspect that Dangor suffers from the proverbial Oedipus complex as he
even allows his protagonist, a distant charicature of himself perhaps, to be
alienated from his wife.
Using his characters, the narrator ojectivizes the allegedly flawed
Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s processes. From the protagonist’s abused
wife, Lydia;
“ Its always something or someone else who’s responsible, a “ larger
scheme of things “ that exonerates people from taking responsibility for the
things they do . “ ( p 7 )
She cannot forgive and forget her brutal rape by security operatives and
her husband’s “ experimental “ sexual liason with his M K comrade. Her anger is
understandable and valid. She argues that many oppressed people did not
degenerate into an amoral cycle of promiscuity in order to release the
tensions, pain and frustration of being a victim of apartheid ( p 15 ).
The novel’s title alludes to the overwhelming tone of bitterness. It is
indicative of the irony of showing how a process designed to heal instead
agitates. Ali is key to this in his ineffectual role as a government official.
His behaviour throughout the story gives no indication of being a healer. Like
his wife, he cannot forgive past wrongs and crucially, shows no remorse for his
own harmful deeds. Lydia who initially represses her own memories of the past
is correct to question Ali’s motivations for remembering the past and his
dispassionate behaviour towards others. Thus his call to his wife “ to deal
with this “ is muted 9 p 17 ).
While she criticizes the Truth and Reconciliation process, she also despises her husband’s role in government – “ you are one of them, the grey men you always mocked . “ ( pp 56, 64 )
While she criticizes the Truth and Reconciliation process, she also despises her husband’s role in government – “ you are one of them, the grey men you always mocked . “ ( pp 56, 64 )
Ali’s post entails ‘ liasing between the Ministry of Justice and the T R
C. It was his task to ensure that everyone concerned remained objective, the T
R C’s supporters and its opponents, that they considered the law above all, and
did not allow their emotions to sway them “ ( p 59 ) . And yet he ironically
fails in his post and the process itself as he is personally affected by the
past to the point that he is not really impartial and neutral as the internal
narratives allege.
The major events of memory, confession and retribution are well-structured
( into three parts ) , recalled and commented on through characters’
testimonies, revelations and self-discoveries, or lack thereof.
When encountering Lydia’s rapist, the security operative, Duboise, Ali
and his wife remember the events which are buried deep in their psyche. For
them it is a revelation that the past can never be forgotten. They also fear
that their son, Mikey, who is the human product of Lydia’s rape, will become
like DuBoise. He does so murderously, but becomes more like his mother,
adopting her incestuous behaviour. We
believe that DuBoise is not the true cause of Lydia’s pain. Her trauma is
derived from having been raped incestuously as a child.
On making his self-discovery, turning fifty, the protagonist of BITTER
FRUIT reaches a point of no return in his life. He is on the verge of being
declared redundant and his complacency and previous lack of concern for others
is rather leading him down a dangerous path of self-destruction. While the
ensuing actions of both his wife and son are morally reprehensible, they,
ironically, at least take action.
Even though she resists memories, Lydia comes to terms with her brutal
rape ( pp 110-112 ). It is encapsulated significantly in the following words;
“ Three nights ago, I was raped. By a policeman, in a veld, flung down
on the grass, the darkness above his head my only comfort. I will recover from
the physical act of that rape. We always do, women have this capacity to heal
themselves. But I also know that I am pregnant. Inside of me is a rapist’s
seed. My child will be a child of rape . “ ( p 114 )
To my mind all the flaws of Dangor’s literary techniques
notwithstanding, this is the best passage of the story. It threads together the
important act of remembering the hurtful past, acknowledging Lydia’s pitiable
place in the proverbial South African sun as she desists from confessing any
part of the vagaries of her abusive past and, while setting her on a path of
recovery, it places her on a path of hurtful retribution.
Ali wants to change, but is unable to do so, while Lydia does change in
spite of her tragic past, and has an opportunity to start a new life. Ultimate
healing is necessary and desirable for both. Ali confesses his past
misdemeanours, but Lydia is adamant that she has committed no wrongdoing and
not responsible for her actions. Her son adopts a similar attitude. Ali does
not seek retribution, however, as both his wife and son do. Ironically, they
make progress in their own self-discoveries while Ali fails. They begin their own
process of healing.
In saying this the narrator makes one of the most important statements
in BITTER FRUIT as Lydia escapes the narrative’s overwhelming tone of
bitterness;
“ Time and distance, even this paltry distance will help to free her . “
( p 251 )
It is everybody’s goal to change and seek ultimate healing, but
retribution ironically brings both success and failure.
Owing to the negative tone of BITTER FRUIT, however deliberate, Dangor,
to my mind fails to “ echo the sentiments of the T R C . “ Unlike Antjie Krog
in her groundbreaking book, COUNTRY OF MY SKULL ( 2002: Random House (Pty) Ltd:
Johannesburg ), it is not Dangor’s intention, but unlike Coetzee and other
astute commentators, he fails miserably at nuancing the bitter ironies of
apartheid which permeate the healing process of the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission.
Three major events in the novel, namely that of memory, confession and
retribution were examined in this note. The success, or failure of the Truth
and Reconciliation Commission to heal, was tested by both the narrator and his
receiver. Ultimately there is abject failure, but through action rather than
inactivity there is always the possibility of success.
– Using
the Oedipus Complex to do a Literary Analysis –
I have selected J M Coetzee’s LIFE AND TIMES
OF MICHEAL K (Coetzee, J 2004. London: Vintage ) and Shakespeare’s HAMLET ( Shakespeare, W 2005.
London: Penguin ) in order to perform an interpretation of literature using
Freud’s psychoanalytic theories. Here, I
am focusing on the Oedipus complex in my
demonstration. I also briefly use other
Freudian proposals such as the mechanisms of displacement, condensation and
symbolism ( P 37, THL3705/101 ) .
In order to demonstrate effectively how a
Freudian interpretation of LIFE AND TIMES OF MICHAEL K is successfully carried
out, a brief outline of the origins of the Greek tragedy, the Oedipus myth, and
Freud’s use of it is given. The other Freudian proposals are inserted in the
analysis where it is appropriate to do so.
The Oedipus complex ( Wikipedia ) is concerned with emotions and ideas that the
subconscious mind represses. Freud declares that it is concerned with a boy’s
desire to sexually possess his mother and kill his father. The Shakespearean
text of HAMLET is close to emulating
this myth when Hamlet seeks to avenge his father’s murder by killing the
usurper to his father’s throne. This
complex developed by Freud originates from Greek mythological play OEDIPUS REX where Oedipus kills his father and
unwittingly marries his mother, thus entering into an incestuous relationship
with her. It is affirmed as an
incestuous wish for the mother, jealousy for and a desire to kill the father
who purportedly bars access to the mother ( 151 ) .
Freud concluded that certain mechanisms, or
processes are in force in the human subconscious by means of which the
unconscious deals with repressed material. These mechanisms are known as
displacement, condensation, symbolisation and sublimation (P 128, de Jong.
LITERARY THEORY IN CONTEXTS ). Before I proceed, it is necessary to understand
what these psychoanalytic terms, as devised by Freud, mean.
By displacement it is meant that a “
dream-wish “ is distorted as a result of censorship which steers psychic
interest away from a source of psychic conflict ( 138 ), such as in the desire
to murder one’s father. It is further stated that repression takes place
without the will, decision, or knowledge of the subject. Both Shakespeare and Coetzee’s
texts counter these proposals to a degree. In HAMLET, the protagonist is
encouraged to kill his step- father and not his biological father by a ghost of
his deceased father ( p 32 ), and not within a dream. In LIFE AND TIMES OF
MICHAEL K, the protagonist does not know of his father and does not desire to
seek out his father, but rather is an unwilling rebel against a patriarchal,
militarist regime. We therefore learn that in a conscious world there is
censorship and that we are faced with moral choices. These moral choices plague
HAMLET, as epitomised in the famous
“ to be or not to be “ ( 66
) speech. It would appear that on the
surface Michael K does not wrestle with any moral dilemmas and only has a
desire to live in peaceful solitude, nurturing and planting. I suspect that in
this process K misses his deceased mother (and not an absent
father ) .
Through condensation, meanings in several
chains of association come together in a single idea ( 138 ) . In LITERARY THEORY IN CONTEXT the comparison
of symbolism with the metaphor is emphasised ( 142 ) . We learn that symbols
are figures of speech and that what is symbolised is unconscious. Dreams make
use of symbols to disguise hidden thought, but in both HAMLET and LIFE and
TIMES OF MICHEAL K the sources of the protagonists’ perceived hidden ideas,
thoughts and dreams are an entirely different matter. Hamlet does not dream of his father’s death.
It is replayed vividly to him by his father’s ghost. Hamlet’s private thoughts
of avenging his father’s death is give public effect through the performance of a play within a play in The Mouse Trap where a pantomime of his
father’s death is conducted before the guilty Claudius, the deceased king’s
brother. Micheal K spends much of his time sleeping and the narrative of LIFE
OF TIMES OF MICHEAL K does not recall any dreams, giving the impression that
Micheal as a simpleton is incapable of having dreams. He does, however, dream of his “ mother with flaming hair “ ( 204 ) .
To conclude that Shakespeare’s version of
the Oedipus myth is a counterfoil of Freud’s analogy, I state that Hamlet has
no incestuous desires towards his mother and is rather intent on avenging his
father’s death by Claudius. He in no way detests his father and is rather appalled
by his mother’s incestuous marriage to Claudius.
There is a stronger possibility, however, of
the Oedipus complex being evident in the few thoughts of Micheal K whose
initial desire is to care for his ailing mother. When she dies, it is K’s
mission to see that she is laid to rest, as it were, in her childhood town of Prince Albert. Unlike Hamlet and Oedipus, Micheal does not
commit suicide. He does, however, neglect his already distorted physical
appearance, preferring to be isolated and dead to the real world. Like Oedipus,
K is an illbegotten child;
“
She shivered to think of what had been growing in her all these months
“ (
5 )
A key portion of Coetzee’s text, to my mind,
summarises the allusion to the Oedipus myth
and idea of the Oedipus complex;
“ So
there is a place for burning, K thought. He imagined the old women from the
ward fed one after another, eyes pirched against the heat, lips pinched, hands
at their sides, into the fiery furnace. First the hair, in a hale of flame,
then after a while everything else, to the last things, burning and crumbling.
And it was happening all the time. “
( 44 )
Derek Attwell, writing in Father and Mother – Writing in the Cauldron
of History (
Attwell, D , 1993. SOUTH AFRICA AND THE POLITICS OF WRITING, Los
Angeles: University of California Press )
suggests that there is a binary opposition between the principles of the
father and mother ( 94 ) . I have already mentioned that K did not know
his biological father. Attwell suggests
that “ the father here is the political father, with
its roots in psychoanalysis. As the mother ( not the son ) opposes the father,
gardening is the opposite of this corrosive notion of power. “
In HAMLET there is no direct threat of
castration from the father, while in LIFE AND TIMES OF MICHEAL K, the
protagonist is always under threat, both figuratively and literally. By banishing him to England in order to
subvert his efforts of avenging his father’s death, it is evident that Claudius
is Hamlet’s immediate threat in the place of his biological father. In LIFE AND
TIMES OF MICHEAL K, the protagonist’s mother, Anna K, and later after her
death, the military and medical officers, take the place of K’s absent
father, always conflicting with his
desire to be left alone.
Freud has suggested that through education,
the young adolescent is taught to inhibit, forbid and suppress subconscious
desires and emotions. For Hamlet, this is certainly true as he wrestles with
the emotive issue of murdering his uncle, Claudius. He certainly recognises
that even if he acts justifiably, his act is still murderous. Micheal K has no
formal education which can match that
given to Hamlet, and is thus ill-equipped and inadequate in dealing with the
human conflict that he is faced with. In fact, while Hamlet is portrayed as a
virile, intellectual, royal-blooded male, capable of fulfilling his father’s
wish of successfully ascending to the throne of King of Denmark, Micheal K can
be characterised as an underdeveloped male, malnourished by choice it would
seem, with androgynous, bisexual tendencies which Freud suggests is prevalent
in a small child of say eight years of age. Indeed, K has no sexual desires
towards others as is seen when he is unresponsive to a vagrant who fellates
him. I argue that while K lacks an interest in sex, the developmental stage
which has been mentioned here, should be more accurately categorised as
asexual. The bisexual tendency is only evident at a much later, pubescent stage
of development. Here, we come dangerously close to suspecting a homosexual
tendency in Hamlet’s character as he forbids any love relationship with
Ophelia, the daughter of Claudius ally and confidant, Polonius. We are also
reminded that during the Elizabethan age during which HAMLET and most of
Shakespeare’s other plays were staged, all characters, both male and female,
were peculiarly played by men.
I conclude that neither Shakespeare nor J M
Coetzee have deliberately intertextualised the Oedipus myth and that Freud’s
psychoanalytical formulations may be correct as shown in the play and literary
text where both characters are remarkably close to their mothers and both
literally and figuratively seek to quell the threat posed by their father
figures.
14 - THE PERFORMATIVE TURN
– A Report
on Julius Malema’s Song Dubul I’Bunu – Kill The Boer , And the Proposal that it
be declared as Hate Speech
EPIGRAPH
“ We are fighting this war “ , Noel said, “ so
that minorities will have a say in their destinies “
J M
Coetzee, LIFE AND TIMES OF MICHEAL K
“ The new
tune which was to be the theme-song of Hate Week ( the Hate Song, it was called
) had already been composed and was being endlessly plugged on the telescreens
. It had a savage, barking rhythm which
could not exactly be called music, but resembled the beating of a drum. Roared
out by hundreds of voices to the tramp of marching feet, it was terrifying. The
proles had taken a fancy to it, and in the midnight streets it competed with
the still-popular “ It was a hopeless
fancy “ . “
George
Orwell, NINETEEN-EIGHTY FOUR
INTRODUCTION
It is not difficult to imagine which
minority J M Coetzee may have alluded to in a futuristic account of a South
Africa engulfed by a civil war which has its roots in a racist past controlled
by a minority race group. It is a
frightening preoccupation of imagining a future controlled by one
intellectually and materialistically superior group of people over a larger,
uneducated and unedified majority. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin visualised a future
where all citizens would be equal in the eyes of the state, but just before his
death, may have lamented that the Soviet ideal was a recipe for disaster. In
today’s societies, conjoined in one global village, the perceived democratic
alternative , controlled by Keynesian market forces, seems doomed to fail.
Many movements, mostly of a nongovernmental
and anti-governmental nature, have sprung up to oppose the inequitable and
unjust rule of a few over many. None more so than in South Africa where the
African National Congress Youth League, capitalising on the mass
dissatisfaction of South African citizens against unemployment, homelessness
and the lack of basic services, deemed a constitutional and fundamental right
to all citizens living in the country.
The tenet of Julius Malema’s campaign
against these injustices has its roots in institutionalised segregation and
colonialism and the song Dubul I’Bhunu, translated as Kill the Boer is an
allusion to the discrimination of the mostly white Afrikaners of the many
non-white ethnic groups in South Africa.
In this report I will argue why the ANC
Youth League’s struggle song, “ Kill The Boer “ , as popularised by its leader,
Julius Malema, should be declared as a form of hate speech. In doing so, a
theoretical explanation of what hate speech is will be given. Further, the
historical and political, as well as social consequences of such a song will be
outlined.
THEORETICAL
ANALYSIS
A)
THE PERFORMATIVE TURN
The performative turn is described in LITERARY THEORY IN CONTEXT as a
paradigm shift in cultural studies, literary theory and performance studies (
228 ) . It is a shift from a textual to a performative model where in the
conventional view a speaker expresses something. The performative view is given
that a speaker brings something about or produces something. Here, I mention
that Julius Malema’s expressive interpretation of “ Kill the Boer “ is a clarion call against
racial prejudice, material and social injustice. The allegation is made that the
vast wealth of the country is still held in the hands by the few white business
empires still flourishing in South Africa. While it is not mentioned in the
song itself, the youth movement are mindful and knowledgeable of the fact that
more so today, material power and wealth is shifting into the hands of their
former black compatriots. It is also alleged that Mr Malema himself is guilty
of this crass manipulation of the country’s wealth. The masses to which this
song is sung are ignorant of this suspicion, or have pragmatically chosen to
ignore it for the time being.
The literary theorist, John Searle, states that a performative utterance
changes a social situation. In so doing, he developed a classification of
illocutionary acts in which a specified
role of intentionality is recorded in speech acts. He also explains the
relationship of illocutionary acts as well as social and institutional facts.
John Austin, on the other hand, explored the
link between words and actions, and in his seminal text, HOW TO DO THINGS WITH
WORDS, he states the performative utterance names the act that is performed
with its utterance. In this light, it is mentioned that the non-governmental
organisation, Afri-Forum, representing the rights and needs of mostly white
farmers, has laid the criminal charge against Mr Malema for the use of the song
“ Kill the Boer “ , arguing in the
process that hundreds of farmers have been murdered as a consequence of the
song’s utterance. Both Malema and the African National Congress have argued
that this song is legendary in its struggle history, that the clarion call is
metaphorical and that there is no correlation between the singing of the song
and the actual killing of farmers. Using Austin’s theory, I argue that their
performance and subsequent response to the criminal charges is
infelicitous ( unlawful ) .
In terms of Austin’s definition of speech
acts, Malema’s song can be defined as a perlocutionary act where “ utterances that have certain consequences
for feelings, thoughts and actions of those to whom they are addressed or other
persons “ . He states further that the perlocutionary act produces consequences
with some time delay ( 244 ). It can be argued that it may be too early to
judge Malema on the singing of this
song, however, he does not have exclusive rights to the song which has
been sung vociferously by one of his predessessors, Peter Mokaba, during a
testing time of South Africa’s young democracy. It can also be argued that in
the years since Mokaba first popularised “ Kill the Boer “ many farmers have
been murdered.
The murder of farmers may be an unintentional act by Malema and his peers, but Searle disagrees, saying that there is intention in perlocutionary acts. If there is any intention in these acts, then it could be argued that the utterances are in stark contradiction to the manifesto’s of both the Communists and the ANC and the Freedom Charter where it is deemed that all citizens shall be equal.
The murder of farmers may be an unintentional act by Malema and his peers, but Searle disagrees, saying that there is intention in perlocutionary acts. If there is any intention in these acts, then it could be argued that the utterances are in stark contradiction to the manifesto’s of both the Communists and the ANC and the Freedom Charter where it is deemed that all citizens shall be equal.
B)
HATE SPEECH
The speech act theorist, Judith Butler,
argues against the above proposals of Austin and Searle where she proposes that
hate speech should be looked at in terms of perlocutionary effects. She argues
that the utterance of hate speech, even if not intended, constitutes the
addressee in a socially subordinate position. The Nobel prize laureate, Toni Morrison, states that
oppressive language does more than represent violence, it is violence. Butler
further claims that injurious speech degrades or demeans the addressee and may
undermine the capacity to work, exercise rights and become an agent in the public
domain. The large-scale closure of farms, although mostly for economic reasons, and mass emigration of
white South Africans since the advent of democracy in 1994, can be noted in
support of these claims. Also, many black youths are distracted from the proper course of persistently seeking to
complete their tertiary education competently in order to have a more than equitable opportunity of obtaining employment in their chosen fields.
Here, legislation is already in force in terms of the Employment Equity Act.
Butler further states that the subject who
cites, in this case, Julius Malema, is produced as an effect of the citation.
The citation produces the subject as a belated and fictive speaker and agent of
the performative utterance, in this case, to “ kill the boer “ . She concedes
that it is difficult to hold the individual and the speech act responsible, but
argues that it should be possible to hold people responsible for words and
acts, whatever their intentions.
HISTORICAL
AND POLITICAL BACKGROUND OF THE SONG: KILL THE BOER
The ANC has argued that the song Dubul
I’Bhunu has long been part of the struggle’s repertoire of freedom songs. It has only become more evident in the last
twenty years, ironically at the advent of democracy in South Africa where
freedom has been attained. Truth be told that words to the same effect first
were chanted in Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) circles in the early 1990s along
with their infamous slogan of “one
settler, one bullet”. Shortly thereafter, the late ANC youth leader
Peter Mokaba borrowed the slogan and began chanting his “kill the Boer, kill
the farmer” version in 1993 after the murder of ANC and Communist Party
leader, Chris Hani.
JULIUS
MALEMA : POLITICAL SAVIOUR OR DICTATOR ?
Julius Malema has been described by the
current South African president, Jacob Zuma, as
“ the future leader “ of South Africa (Wikipedia ). He is less
favourably described as a reckless populist with the potential to destabilise
South Africa and spark racial conflict. In 1995 Malema was elected chairman of
the ANC Youth League branch in Seshego where he was born and brought up. Later,
in 1997 he was elected as chairman of the Congress of South African Students in
Limpopo Province and then chairman of the national body of the same
organisation in 2001. In 2002 he led a COSAS march by school pupils through the
streets of Johannesburg. This march was characterised by incidents of violence
and looting. His first election as ANC Youth League leader was also
characterised by unruly behaviour amongst supporters and detractors.
Some media analysts have depicted him as an
orator with broad appeal in the young, poor and disadvantaged black electorate.
Critics have described him as a demagogue. When Afriform brought the case of
hate speech against him the aggressive and patronizing questioning black
witnesses by lawyers for the Afrikaner movement allowed Malema to portray
himself as a victim of Afrikaner persecution.
In 2010 on a visit to neighbouring Zimbabwe,
Malema branded that country’s opposition leader, Morgan Tsvangirai, as an ally
of “ imperialists “, thus emulating
Zimbabwe’s president, Robert Mugabe, in engaging in anti-colonial rhetoric.
Malema has blamed Tsvangirai’s Movement for Democratic Change for the political
violence in Zimbabwe and has defended Mugabe’s political and human rights
record. He has praised Mugabe’s land
seizures and it is ironic to note that he encouraged South Africa’s youth to
follow the example of Zimbabwe’s youth, because it is mostly Mugabe’s so-called
war veterans who are responsible for the land invasions. It is interesting to note that
most Zimbabwean youths still attend tertiary institutions and are not involved
in violent protests. Julius Malema has since undertaken to make nationalisation
of South African land,
mines and other enterprises a primary policy objective, even though it is not
currently ANC policy. Indeed organisations such as the National Union of Mineworkers are opposed to
Malema’s objective.
CONSTITUTIONAL
SIGNIFICANCE
In terms of the Bill of Rights in the
Constitution of South Africa all citizens have the right to freedom of
religion, belief and opinion as well as freedom of expression, assembly,
demonstration, picket and petition. Significantly, it states quite clearly as
to be understood that freedom of
expression “ does not extend to
propaganda for war, incitement of imminent violence, or advocacy of hatred that
is based on race, ethnicity, gender or religion, and that constitutes
incitement to cause harm.
In adherence to the Constitution and in the
aftermath of the murder of the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging leader, Eugene
Terre’blanche, the ANC discarded the singing of Dubul I’Bhunu as a struggle
slogan. The Human Rights Commission had as far back as the early
nineteen-nineties decried the singing of the song when it was uttered by Peter
Mokaba. Julius Malema, however, has resiliently persisted with the singing of
the song.
JUDICAL
VIEW
In response to the singing of Dubul I’Bhunu, numerous complaints have been made against Julius Malema, both to the South African Police and the Human Rights Commission. The South Gauteng High Court ruled on 26 March 2010 that the song was unconstitutional and unlawful and that any person singing it could face charges of incitement to murder. On 1 April 2010 the Northern Gauteng High Court granted an interdict preventing Malema from publicly uttering the words of this song or any other song which could be considered to be instigating violence and/or hatred between black and white citizens.
In response to the singing of Dubul I’Bhunu, numerous complaints have been made against Julius Malema, both to the South African Police and the Human Rights Commission. The South Gauteng High Court ruled on 26 March 2010 that the song was unconstitutional and unlawful and that any person singing it could face charges of incitement to murder. On 1 April 2010 the Northern Gauteng High Court granted an interdict preventing Malema from publicly uttering the words of this song or any other song which could be considered to be instigating violence and/or hatred between black and white citizens.
More than a year later, Malema was found
guilty of hate speech. In his judgement, Judge Colin Lamont declared that “ the
words uttered by Malema constitute hate speech “ . He added that although such
songs had its place during the apartheid era, they were now “inappropriate in a society now struggling to
redefine race relations “ (http://www.guardian.co.uk. The Guardian newspaper warns that even
while guilty of hate speech, Malema cannot be ignored. They believe that the
vehemence and volume of his rhetoric could over time, be influential.
POLITICAL
AND HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES:
A)
GENOCIDE
It is argued that hate speech can and often
does bring about the persecution of one group of people by another, sometimes
leading to genocide. The most significant accounts of genocide, amongst others,
during the twentieth century has been Nazi Germany’s execution of six million
Jews and the Rwandese Hutu’s brutal butcher of the Tutsi’s. We can even include
the Sharpeville massacre of 1960 in this vein.
The president of Genocide Watch, Gregory
Stanton, (http://www.genocidewatch.org) names eight stages of genocide, namely;
classification, symbolisation, dehumanization, organization, polarisation,
preparation, extermination and denial. In this case it can be argued that
Malema’s hate speech rhetoric has already reached the classification,
sybolisation, dehumanisation, organisation and polarisation stages. White
Afrikaners have been singled out and Malema has spent a considerable amount of time
rallying the disenchanted black youth
during his tenure as ANC Youth League President. It cannot be denied that the
ruling ANC has until recently kept his movements unchecked and allowed him to
flourish in gaining in popularity and winning over supporters .
Genocide Watch has placed South Africa at
stage five ( polarization ) because the country’s racial divisions continued,
there was a high level of youth unemployment amongst the black population and
the very high crime rate. They now believe that they have evidence of
incitement to violence against white people in the rise to power of Julius
Malema and his singing of “ Kill the
Boer “ . They have declared that they
will keep South Africa at stage 6 ( preparation ) until Julius Malema is
removed from power. While South Africa has not yet reached the stage of actual
genocide, the preparations for it are ominous.
“
Xenophobic riots and murders of foreign refugees as well as continuing
hate crimes against Boer farmers and other whites have caused dark storm clouds
to form over the rainbow nation “ .
B)
KRISTALNACHT – THE NAZI SUBERVERSION AND
ANIHILATION OF SIX MILLION JEWS
On November 9, 1938, the Nazis staged
vicious pogroms, state sanctioned, anti-Jewish riots against the Jews in Germany. These came to be known as Kristallnacht (Night
of Broken Glass), a reference to the untold numbers of broken windows of
synagogues, Jewish-owned stores, community centers, and homes plundered and
destroyed during the pogroms. Encouraged by the Nazi regime, rioters burned or
destroyed 267 synagogues, vandalized or looted 7,500 Jewish businesses, and
killed at least 91 Jewish people. They
damaged many Jewish cemeteries, hospitals, schools, and homes as police
and fire brigades stood aside. Kristallnacht was a turning point in history.
The pogroms marked an intensification of Nazi anti-Jewish policy that would
culminate in the Holocaust—the systematic, state-sponsored murder of Jews. (
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum )
C)
RWANDA – THE COCKROACH SYNDROME: THE MASSACRE OF
800 000 TUTSIS BY HUTUS
While South Africa was celebrating its
freedom, going to the polls to elect new, democratic government, Rwanda
descended into an orgy of genocide performed over a period of just one hundred
days. The Rwandan genocide has historical significance, rooted in its colonial
past. When Belgium colonised Rwanda in 1916 , identity cards classifying people
according to their ethnicity were issued. When South Africans handed over their
identity documents for inspection before casting their first vote, their
ethnicity was also revealed to election monitors. Prior to the Sharpeville
massacre black South Africans were required by apartheid law to carry pass
books. The British Broadcast Corporation mentions that like South Africa, ethnic
tension in Rwanda was not a new phenomenon.
The current president of Rwanda, Paul
Kagame, a Tutsi and leader of the Rwandese Patriotic Front, was initially
blamed for encouraging the genocide after a peace accord between the rival
ethnic groups did little to stop ethnic violence and the Hutu president
Habyarimana was assassinated. The presidential guard initiated a campaign of
retribution where up to thirty thousand Hutus lead by military officials,
politicians and businessmen carried out
“ a wave of slaughter “ . I have labelled this human catastrophe the
cockroach syndrome by way of the propaganda carried out by Hutu radio
broadcasters who labelled the Tutsi’s as cockroaches.
CONCLUSION
After much theorising on the performative
turn and the nature of hate speech in society, and in South African society in
particular, I concur with Judith Butler’s view that responsibility must be
taken for speech acts made to further a cause, whether it be for freedom from
oppression, or vociferous opposition to a minority culture or viewpoint not
shared by the speaker and his addressees. Critically, Butler in EXCITABLE
SPEECH (1997 ) argued against regulating
speech, particularly if it subordinates, marginalizes, or harms members of an
oppressed group (Schwartzman, L , 2002.
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY ). Controversially, she advises against enacting
restrictions on hate speech because such restrictions may silence those who
would otherwise challenge this speech by “ resigniying “ and
“ restaging it “ . Where South Africa is concerned, Butler need
not worry as freedom of speech/expression is enshrined in the Constitution,
however, she will be mindful of the fact that the Constitution also protects
those against which harmful speech acts are made. Hence the unanimous verdict
of guilty in respect of Julius Malema’s proclamation of Dubul I’Bhunu, to Kill
the Boer.
15 - THE GARDEN OF THE FINZI-CONTINIS
– Giorgio Bassani
“ The world was not as it once was, when Etruria, with its confederation
of free, aristocratic city-states, dominated almost the entire Italic
peninsula. “ ( Bassani, p 11 2007 )
In THE GARDEN OF THE FINZI-CONTINIS time is central and the narrator
uses it to remember his friendship with Micol Finzi-Contini, his association
with her aristocratic family, the changes that engulf Ferrara during Benito
Mussolini’s Fascist dictatorship and the debilitating effects that this
oppressive regime has on the Jews of Ferrara. Time is also reminiscent of the
cycle of life, not just in the narrator’s small world of Ferrara, but in the
broader universe too.
The poignant meeting of the narrator and Micol Finzi-Continis in the
garden’s shed is significant. Here, Micol introduces the sentimental narrator
to the family’s carriage which is symbolic of the theme of time being circular.
It is imagined in the spokes of the carriage’s wheels, which no longer turn in
its disused state. The circularity of time reminds us of history’s tendency to
repeat itself and humankind’s inability to prevent this.
While the Finzi-Contini’s are cloistered within the walls of the their
estate we are reminded of the historical significance and imposition of the
Jewish Ghetto throughout the history of the Italian Jews. It is only at the
hands of Mussolini’s defeat that the Jews are finally emancipated from their
spiritual ghetto, free of persecution and prejudice in a more universal Europe
which is begrudgingly more tolerant of them.
The deterioration and neglect of the disused carriage is symbolic of the
Finz-Contini’s dispassionate attitude towards thedecline of their aristocracy
and way of life. It is Micol who vocalises their decline when she remarks that
objects are insignificant and also die. She is adamant that it is better to let
go of the past, however, I believe that she in her aloofness has misunderstood
the passionate and sentimental narrator who has an enduring admiration for the
ornamentalism of the Finz-Continis family and the need to preserve objects such
as the carriage for its historicity and even artistic value.
Time is inconsequential to Micol. The depressing realisation that her
privileged life is coming to an abrupt and murderous end devastates her.
Masking her fear from the narrator, she believes that it is better for to
forget her family’s illustrious past than to remember it.
It is the narrator’s objective, however, as a literary agent, to record
events from the past. The significant historical events of the
nineteen-thirties in Ferrara cannot be forgotten. While reminiscing
nostalgically on his friendship with Micol, he comments severly on Mussolini’s
fascist persecution of the city’s Jews. He adeptly records the history of
Farrarese Jews from earlier dynasties in order to place their condition in its
proper context.
Throughout the story we are reminded of the significance of nineteen
thirty-eight during which the “Racial Laws
in Italy “ are promulgated by Mussolini. In the introduction to the text
we learn that “the narrator already suffers anxiety concerning those rights
that belonged to a past which, though it seemed remote, was still recuperable,
was not yet lost. “ (p vii ) In this context, while time is central to THE
GARDEN OF THE FINZ-CONTINIS, there is an overriding theme of hope in the
fabula.
The consequences of the fascist Race Laws are far more devastating to
Micol and her aristocratic family than to the narrator and his working-class
family. The Finz-Continis stand to lose more; their regal lifestyle, rich
heritage and influence in Ferrarese society. The narrator’s father has a
pragmatic view of events in fascist Italy and believes that his family will
survive the onslaught on their Jewish heritage. Ironically, their agnosticism
of the time of il Duce ( p 22 ) contributes towards their religious survival.
The symbolism of the walls that surrounf the Finz-Continis’ garden and
home is significant. Whilst it brings them security and seclusion, it is
symbolic of the Ghetto’s that have surrounded and ensnared the Ferrarese Jews
for centuries. Referencing “ the remarkable history of the Jews in Ferrara “ we
learn that the Ghetto is first enforced through the Papal legations in fifteen
ninety-eight and only repealed after the Unification of Italy in 1859. It
returns in 1938.
THE GARDEN OF THE FINZ-CONTINIS begins in medias res where the narrator
sets the tone of the fabula, placing it in context with a visit to the ancient
Etruscan graveyard ( pp 7-12 ) . Bassani focuses on his relationship with Micol
and the Finzi-Continis, giving an account of their history alongside the
history of Ferrara and its Jewish community.
He also comments on the idealistic socialist, Malnate, who
disappointingly has a discreet sexual relationship with Micol. It is not a
loving relationship as Micol is devoid of feelings of love for the opposite
sex. She merely feeds her naturalistic desires. Through his father, the
narrator is critical of the Finzi-Continis’ hedonistic lifestyle and personally
criticizes Malnate’s ill-conceived ideology. Tragically, Malnate is lost to
Stalin’s Russia. Not devoid of sentiment, the narrator adopts his father’s pragmatism
and is able to survive Fascism.
The narrator’s father pours scorn on the Finz-Continis’ lavish
lifestyles and idiosyncratic penchant for monuments in their honour ( p 21 )
while his son is admittedly still fascinated by them.
While his knowledge of Ferrarese Jews, the Finz-Continis and their fates
at the hands of Fascism and the Race Laws is acute, he agnostically observes
the important Jewish festivals of Pesach, Yom Kippur ( p 30 0 and Rosh
Hoshannah.
While observing the regal and graceful carriage, seldomly used by the
Finz-Continis, their mode of transport having been replaced by automobiles, we
think of the revolutions that the carriage’s wheels make when transporting its
passengers. It hints at the narrator’s perception of time as revolving. Although
the story is linear, the narrator suggests that history repeats itself
cyclically.
To the narrator the ornate carriage is a relic of an era of grace and
tranquillity for the Finzi-Continis. It is emblematic of a lifestyle which no
longer has any value for Micol who waits impatiently for it to end. While she
does this, the narrator nostalgically recalls the carriage’s illustrious
history with the
Micol is well aware of the disintegration of her family’s aristocracy
and way of life, and is mentally too weak to endure its persecution. A rapid
conclusion of their lives and legacy is desired, rather than witnessing its
decline.
A keen knowledge of botany, Micol’s fondness for fauna and “ passionate
admiration for trees “ (91) suggests an awareness that these beloved natural
objects are passing away. In genocide and war, nothing is spared, not even
plants.
In his Prologue ( p 12 ) Bassani reports that Micol and the rest of her
family are “ deported to Germany in the autumn of 1943. “ It is difficult to understand
how a wealthy family such as the Finzi-Continis is unable to escape their
horrible fate. Micol is aware of their fate, but does not want to understand
it.
As a Jew, the narrator is concerned about surviving the Fascist
onslaught.
The aesthetically and culturally rich society to which the narrator
aspires, is dangerously close to being extinguished by fascism. That it
survives and is revived is ironically due to the rebellious resistances carried
out by socialists and communists who despise the avant-garde lifestyles that
the narrator and his friends value and uphold.
The separation of Jews from the broader Ferrarese society is not the
narrator’s main concern, but rather, the “ social divisions “ ( p xi ) “ which
keep the very wealthy Finzi-Continis “ isolated from working-class Ferrarese
citizens. It is not fascism, nor religion which distances him from Micol, but
the social phenomenon, long part of Italy’s history, of distance between the
aristocracies and their working-classes being maintained.
I agree with the rubric’s suggestion that “ the intimate enclosure is a
classical scene of missed opportunities and bad timing. “ The narrator concedes
that a love for life to which he aspires cannot be endured, and the cruel fate
that history consigns to it does debilitate the human condition. There is hope,
however, that the infinity of time will afford the writer an opportunity to
revive a life precious to him. Indeed, Giorgio Bassani, who endures
incarceration, goes on to lead an aesthetically and culturally rich life,
propagating his desire to record history.
In this essay we record and comment on the
history of the English language as it was influenced by different invasions of
the British Isles from the sixth century to the eleventh century A D. We
examine and discuss the different influences of the peoples who invaded Britain
during this period.
In examining these influences we see that
through repeated invasion and conquest, the evolution of an inherently Germanic
language was encouraged by the various
invaders, namely the Celts, Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Scandinavian Vikings.
We also see how the Norman conquest of Great
Britain in 1066 A D brought a strong French influence.
An observation is also made on how
regionalism led to the concretisation of different dialects brought by the British invaders. For instance, the
Jutes centred in and around Kent, while other invaders made their dialectical
influence in regions such as East Anglia, the Midlands and Sussex after
occupation.
Importantly, it is also noted that the
development of Old English essentially originated from the Romans, Celts,
Anglo-Saxons, Danes and the Christian missionaries.
It is argued that owing to the enormous
prestige that their culture brought to Britain, the development of the English
language was mostly influenced by Scandinavian speech patterns and Normandy
French.
The French linguist, Raymond de Saussure
posits that mention is made of the relations between languages and political
history. Major historical events such as the Roman Conquest are linguistically
important. Colonisation transports language into new environments, bringing
changes in language.
A possible early influence from the Normans
who descended from France, was that of the Goths and Gauls:
“ Chronicles record that Goths broke into
Rome “ ( 2 )
Roman power declined. After 409 A D Roman
rule in Britain ended and the Britons could not maintain and develop the Roman
economic and political structures. The Britons survived the invasions of Scots
and Picts in the early decades of the fifth century. Fascinatingly it is here
that we can recall and wonder at the legend of King Arthur who appealed to the
Romans for help before gallantly defending his country against the Scots.
According to Bede the Britons then asked the
Saxons to help, but the true purpose of the Angles and Saxons was to invade the
islands. Barber mentions three groups who settled in different parts of Great
Britain, the Jutes settled in Kent, while other invaders dispersed through East
Anglia, the Midlands and Sussex.
When the distinctive Anglo-Saxon England
emerged, the foundation was laid for the emergence of the English language. The
different invaders brought their own unique differences in dialect from the
Germanic language system which led to the development of the four main dialects
of the Old English language, namely Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish and
West-Saxon.
Under the leadership of King Alfred a second
Normadic invasion was defeated, education revived and, importantly, the policy
of translating important books from Latin into Old English initiated. The
West-Saxon dialect was developed into the literary standard, and by the time of
the Norman Conquest, it was far more developed for the expression of prose and
poetry than any other European vernacular. According to Barber, the vocabulary
of the English was greatly enhanced since the Anglo-Saxon settlement through
adoptions from other languages. The borrowed words brought about the spelling
conventions of these languages. Similarities from those languages still exist.
For example, the Old English word ‘ tide ‘ meant ‘ time ‘ and later came to
denote a particular time, or occasion, for example, “ Whitsuntide “ . We
mention two further good examples, namely, ‘ Gehyde ‘ which means ‘ Heard ‘ ,
and ‘ Spreconde ‘ which means ‘ Speaking ‘ .
The Old English structure allowed for
greater freedom in word order, because relationships between words were
indicated by the ‘ shape ‘ of individual words.
Evidence from the tenth century Northumbrian
texts, for example, the Lindisfarne Gospels, suggests that by this time the
famed inflectional system was in a process of change.
External reasons suggest that a variety of
non-linguistic factors led to the change in language.
As a result of the social and political
upheaval caused by the Norman Conquest the West Saxon system of spelling and
punctuation was, in time, no longer used.
In 1066 Duke William of Normandy defeated
King Harold at Hastings and became King William of England. This event had the
most profound effects on the country and its language. When we read English
texts from the twelfth century onwards we notice changes at every level of the
language, namely in spelling, grammar, word form and vocabulary.
The Vikings settled in Northumbria, the
North-eastern half of England. Here it is believed that a poet was responsible
for threading together ballads, a formation
which eventually led to the creation of the epic “ Beowulf “ ( 10 ).
After the Norman invasion, Norman French
long continued to be the only recognised official language and language of
fashion, but by the beginning of the fourteenth century it had lost hold upon
English life.
The complete triumph of the English was
signalled through the statute of 1362 where all proceedings in law courts had
to be conducted in English instead of French ( 14, 15 ).
While French was disappearing, no standard
form of any new language replaced it. The newly formed English language,
however, was broken up into dialects dependent on different regions of England,
namely; Northern England, Midland England and Southern England, which in turn
were all subdivided into minor varieties of dialects.
East Midland England English gained
ascendency. It became the speech of the country’s capital and of its two
centres of learning, Oxford and Cambridge.
After the Norman Conquest and union with
Norman French it became common practice amongst historians to distinguish a “
sharp dividing line “ between Anglo-Saxon and what was called new speech ( Hudson
). It was not recognised by modern writers who insisted that the origins of
English arose from the Teutonic ( Germanic ) languages.
English of the fourteenth century arose out
of the Anglo Saxon language of the fifth century through a course of evolution
( 9 ). Eventually the term Anglo Saxon was dropped and replaced by the term Old
English.
Anglo Saxon influences on the development of
the English language were strong, and following the Angl-Saxons’ conversion to
Christianity, some of the best known literary influences came from Caedman and
Cynewulf.
It is believed that Caedman’s poetic power
of verse came as a divine gift. These two writers’ poetic form differed
radically from modern English versification, for example, ‘ beginning rime’ was
employed in place of ‘ end rime ‘. Each poetic line consisted of two divisions,
namely; the first division contained two accented syllables while the second
contained at least one.
Accented syllables began with the same
letter. We take a good example from “ Beowulf “;
“ Grendel g ongan, Godes yre Caer “
( Translation: Grendel going God’s anger bore ).
( Translation: Grendel going God’s anger bore ).
I am inclined to support the view that there
were universal tendencies which made all languages evolve in similar ways.
According to Graddol, the stress in English
speech tended to fall increasingly on the first syllable of words. Consequently
inflected syllables at the end of words were more weakly stressed and the vowel
was likely to be reduced to what linguists called a ‘ schwa ‘ sound. This was
represented phonetically as [ 6 ]. If the distinctive vowel sounds of different
inflectional endings were reduced to [ 6 ] then endings became redundant and
were eventually dropped.
Language was seen as a system. Part of this
approach focused on the way knowledge about language was stored in the minds of
speakers. Part of that knowledge in Old English concerned patterns of
inflection. Some noun paradigms did not have distinctive endings in all cases.
This suggested that the Old English inflectional system was inefficient and ripe
for ‘ analogical re-modelling ‘, as suggested by the linguist Roger Lass.
According to de Saussure, the social status
attached to the particular English dialect and the idea of Standard English
became highly politicised.
Graddol explained that any answers to the
question of language change must take account of the social relations between
speakers. In recent years sociolinguists have shown that linguistic changes are
often associated with particular groups in society and that people tend to
adopt changes introduced by more powerful, or prestigious groups. He said that
any account of linguistic changes must make some reference to the different
groups within society, their relative status and the patterns of contact
existing amongst them ( Byrne ).
During the latter eleventh century
Scandinavian speech was quite prestigious. The King of England between 1016 and
1042 was, in fact, Danish.
Through Old Norse, Old English and related
Germanic languages, it was possible that a number of speakers became bilingual.
There was greater pressure on the English inhabitants to learn Scandinavian
than for the Viking invaders to learn English.
After the conquest of English by William I
in 1066, Norman French, not English, became the language of the ruling classes
and servants. Almost all former English nobility were dispossessed of their
lands. Due to these and other socio-political factors French became the
prestigious language of the commoners.
In conclusion, we reiterate that the English
language was influenced by different invasions of Great Britain from the sixth
century to the eleventh century. We looked at the different influences of the
people who invaded Britain during this period.
A significant influence emanating from these
invasions was the encouragement of the evolution of a Germanic language. The
Norman conquest also brought a strong French influence.
Regionalism brought a coming together of
different dialects. It was noted that importantly the Old English development
originated from the Romans. Celts, Anglo-Saxons, Danes and the Christians.
Owing to prestige the development of the English language was influenced by
Scandinavian speech patterns and Normandy French. De Saussure advised that
historical events starting with the Roman conquest were linguistically important.
After Roman rule ended, England survived invasions from Scots and Picts, asking
the Saxons to help them.
The English language arose out of the
distinctive Anglo-Saxon England emergence. Different invaders brought uniquely
different dialects from the Germanic language system which led to the
development of the four main dialects. Barber advised that the vocabulary of
English was improved since the Anglo-Saxon settlement through adoptions from
other languages.
The Old English structure allowed for flexibility.
The battle of Hastings was one of the most significant historical events in
Great Britain. The complete triumph of English was celebrated with the
institution of the statute of 1362. The English language was splintered into
dialects dependent on the different regions of England, however, East Midland
England English dominated. Anglo-Saxon influences on the development of the
English language remained strong. Finally, Norman French, due to various
socio-political factors became a prestigious language, even among commoners.
A
critical evaluation
– John Stuart Mill
– John Stuart Mill
In this essay I argue that “ the moral
significance of our actions “ is not determined “ solely in terms of our
actions. “ In disagreeing with Mill’s position, I critically evaluate it and
support my argument with personal views. In critically evaluating Mill’s
position I give an interpretation of what is meant by morality.
Having read Plato and Aristotle, John Stuart
Mill, as an ethical theorist, devised a consequentialist system of morality
which dictates that;
“ It is the consequences of actions, and
only the consequences of actions, that determine whether actions are right or
wrong. “ ( p 134 )
Mill believed that if the consequences of
performing certain actions are the increase of happiness, these actions are
right, and if the consequences of performing certain actions decreases
happiness, then these actions are wrong. He also formulated his utilitarian
principle of happiness where;
“ If happiness is increased, we say that the
appropriate actions have high utility, and if happiness decreased, we say that
the appropriate actions have low utility. “
In formulating his principle of hedonism
Mill stated that;
“ The only consequences of an action which
have intrinsic value are pleasure or happiness “ ( p 135 ).
Consequences of my actions can bring happiness
to others. In this context we think of a soldier who at great risk to his life
willingly defends his fellow countrymen. Should he lose his life the loss of
his life may secure the lives of others. A mother is willing to endure hardship
and self-sacrifice for the benefit of her family. A hedonist, on the other
hand, will do much to secure his own happiness without counting the cost of
loss of happiness to his peers as a result of his self-centred actions.
Mill concedes that people “ desire virtue
and the absence of vice, no less really than pleasure and the absence of pain .
“ ( p 134 )
Morality is not solely based on
consequences. The measurement of happiness is not solely based on consequences.
In Mill’s concession he accedes that it is possible that the individual must
endure or perform a number of actions before achieving his final purpose of
total and final happiness. Morality is not the sole preserve of the individual.
In taking a moral position, other individuals, or communities, and ultimately
God, must be considered.
The principle of universalism entails that;
“ the good consequences of an action must accrue equally to all persons who are
affected by the performance of the act. “ ( p 135 )
This brings us closer to the true purpose of
morality.
In measuring the principles of hedonism, we
note that three notions mentioned as being crucial to understanding Mill’s
hedonism; “ desiring a thing involves thinking of it as pleasant, thinking of
something as pleasant is to think of it as good, and that desiring a thing
involves thinking of it as good “ ( p 136 ) , are purely based on materialistic
desires. The desire and consumption of natural, material things such as coffee,
alcohol and roast pork, to achieve satisfaction, are counter-productive. The
consumption of coffee, or alcohol brings relief and satisfaction to the human
senses, but as anti-depressants it leads to cravings for more. If the human
senses are not instantly satisfied, previous feelings of anxiety are heightened
and the end objective of seeking self-gratification, or personal happiness is
defeated. From a moral perspective we learn and know that the excessive
consumption of coffee and alcohol does more harm to the human senses, body and
mind. Hence, we learn to curb our hedonistic desires.
Mill is correct to question and alter
Bentham’s “ quantitative hedonism “ ( p 137 ) and right to assume that quality in
attaining a pure state of happiness, but his assumptions are still devoid of
basic moral considerations. I reiterate Mill’s concession that the human being
ultimately desires virtue and “ the absence of vice. “
I do not agree with Mill’s “ Greatest
Happiness Principle “ to reach a conclusion “ about the ultimate test of
morality “ ( p 139 ). In principle it is correct to consider the greatest
number of persons available in order to maximise happiness for this number “ on
the grounds that this is the supreme moral obligation. “ We consider a weighty
constitutional issue such as abortion where a law on abortion is passed through
both Houses in the American system of government, and previously a ruling of
the Supreme Court of Justice where it had argued for and against, and in
response to the Roe vs Wade precedent. The rights of the female individual to
safeguard her body and health in a way she deems fit was gained, however, the
issue at hand remained “ the killing of an unborn child “. Such a case was argued
individualistically and had a profound influence on the country’s population
and their moral well-being. Needless to say, American society, and society as a
whole, remains divided on this issue. The vagaries of daily life tempts the
human being to practice abortion when previously such an act was abhorrent to
her.
Let us assume that such a law is passed in
favour of a large majority in the name of “ Greatest Happiness “. There is not
sufficient proof to take such a decision because minorities have been excluded
from this decision. Further, the rights of the “ unborn child “ have been
decimated. In taking a decision on moral grounds, the commands, or law of a
higher being such as God are rejected.
Where Mill’s principle of consequences is
used, decisions taken by rulers and courts are rational. Mill states that an
action is right if “ there is no alternative action which may produce a greater
balance of pleasure over pain “. I conclude that while there is still pain in
the body politic, there are alternative actions, and if there is none,
alternative actions must be sought.
I agree with Ally’s concern that “ hedonism
is a very contentious doctrine “ ( p 138 ) and that “Mill’s notion of low
quality pleasures and superior pleasures. In my view the person who enjoys
poetry and ballet has a sound moral foundation from which he can explain the
pleasure he derives from it. The person
who derives pleasure from reading gossip columns and watching W W E wrestling
subjects his moralism to query, or he may be lacking in morals altogether. I
concede that this comparison takes into account what Mills says about the level
of a person’s intelligence, however, I contend that deficiencies in human intelligence
can be remedied.
A youth lacking in intelligence may be from
a poverty-stricken background where opportunities in education and the
development of critical skills are lacking. A more privileged youth develops
his mental skills sufficiently enough to refine his aesthetic thoughts and
feelings. But what if the privileged youth develops a taste for pornography? We
could say that he is lacking in moral and spiritual guidance, or otherwise,
more severly, may have suffered physical or sexual abuse to reach this state.
Here, the human being’s moral development is critical. While I agree with Mill’s
utilitarian view that “ psychological facts about people are what counts in
making moral judgements “ ( p 139 ), it is not enough. The highest state of
human happiness that any human can achieve is not a human condition alone, but
dependent on a higher realm of being, v.i.z. on a level beyond his
comprehension. A human with an acute understanding of his God’s laws, if he
believes that there is a being higher than him, and spiritually gifted to communicate
soundly with his creator, is better placed to make a moral judgement on his happiness,
or take a custodial position on the happiness of others, than a non-responsive
being.
I disagree with the assumptions that “ we
are not blameworthy “ ( p 163 ) when we “unintentionally do wrong things or
make the wrong moral decisions. “ If we are not to blame, then who or what is
to blame? It is clear that Mill makes most assumptions from a scientific point
of view. When we do wrong it is premeditated, or if a wrong deed is committed “
in the heat of the moment “ then there are usually feelings of regret, or
remorse afterwards. I would argue that the person who is blameless, or
guilt-free, is the least developed person, who retains a child-like mental
state for most of his adult life, however, even a retarded person is prone to
moral considerations when his loving parents may teach him rudimentarily the
laws of nature and God and the value of knowing Christ ( or Bhudha ).
In this essay I have argued persuasively
against Mill’s theories on moralism, hedonism, consequentialism and
universalism. I disagree with Mill that “ the moral significance of our actions
must be determined solely in terms of our actions “ .
– Roshila Nair
An analysis and critique
an unforgiving poem
truth and forgiveness
are political epics
bigger and lonelier than words,
today i watched an old woman
recoil from the contrite hands of
patriot men who murdered her son
many years ago;
are political epics
bigger and lonelier than words,
today i watched an old woman
recoil from the contrite hands of
patriot men who murdered her son
many years ago;
some say he lived long after
his flesh melted and his bones
his flesh melted and his bones
turned the flames to
ash,
some say it is the undoing of old women
to barricade their ancient bodies with so much hate,
these days it is easy to forget
that women gave birth to children
not nations or memories,
that anger holds the breaking soul
when there’s nothing left but words
some say it is the undoing of old women
to barricade their ancient bodies with so much hate,
these days it is easy to forget
that women gave birth to children
not nations or memories,
that anger holds the breaking soul
when there’s nothing left but words
At a hearing of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Roshila Nair
contemplates the meaning of sincere reconciliation and forgiveness and the
failure in attaining it. An account is given of how an old woman’s son is
killed by security force operatives. After she listens to their plea she must
decide whether or not to forgive them.
Although Ms Nair is merely an observer at the hearings and has no axe to
grind, her feelings toward the security officers are guarded while she is
tearfully sympathetic towards the old woman who has suffered a formidable loss.
Her free verse is delicate and filled with despair.
All words are shown in lower case to effect a tone of humility. In one
angry, unforgiving and breathless swoop of the quill she preoccupies us with
the inefficiency of words and the old woman’s uncharacteristic inability to
forgive.
Politically motivated acts of violence and heroism as well as the act of
forgiveness as monumental acts of courage, love and humility are alluded to in
“ truth and forgiveness / are political epics / bigger and lonelier than words
, “ . It is suggested that the act of forgiveness far outweighs mere words of
confession. The isolation of self-sacrifice and suffering is keenly felt.
Horror and fear are seen in the old woman in “ today i watched an old
woman / recoil from the contrite hands of / patriot men who murdered her son /
many years ago , “ . We see how men of power become meek. They humiliate
themselves before a frightened old woman who is traumatised and heartbroken.
Before the foot soldiers of her oppression all emotion is drained from the old
woman as she shrinks mentally. There is irony in these lines in that these
bewildered men once believed that their deeds were committed in the name of
their country, not recognising that their country belonged to the old woman and
her son too.
The vivid imagery and powerful symbolism of “ some say he lived long
after / his flesh melted and his bones / turned the flames to ash , “
accentuates the brutal murder of the boy. While a word such as “ ash “ connotes
death these lines also celebrate the living spirit of the murdered son. He may
have still been alive when he was set alight. These lines allude to the
practice of burning the victim to hide the evidence of the crime of murder. It
also hints at the opposite extreme of “ necklass-burning “ , methods used by
the security operatives’ nemesis in the townships.
The alliterated words “ lived long after “ reflect that the spirit of
this brave, young soldier of liberation lives on even after his bones have
turned to ash. The spirit triumphs over evil and no degree of flames can
consume it. The memory of the mother’s son is preserved and revered.
In “ some say it is the undoing of old women / to barricade their
ancient bodies with so much hate, “ we see any possibility of forgiveness
disappear. “ Hate “ is a strong word. It is not expected nor customary for
fragile old women who were once strong and protective, yet also strong and
sensitive, to be filled with hate. Through grievous circumstances they have
built a wall of displeasure and bitterness around them. They dislike their
oppressors immensely. Having lived for far too long in an endless cycle of
oppression, their losses too severe to bear, they cannot find it in themselves
to forgive and have thus become harbingers of hatred. This is their “ undoing “
.
The last lines “ these days it is easy to forget / that women gave birth
to children / not nations or memories , / that anger holds the breaking soul /
when there’s nothing left but words. “ is sadly ironic. Anger is tantamount to
hate and it is not an endearing quality for an old woman, yet it keeps her
alive. Today we forget so easily what mothers have sacrificed to enable
collective dreams to bear fruit. If it wasn’t for them where would we be today?
They are not responsible for the bitter memories of the past, yet they
are its biggest casualties. Every ounce of their desires, so crucial to life,
is drained from them. Their motherly instinct are sapped from their
undernourished bodies. Their anger is passed on to surviving children and today
moral decay has set in. The bond of nationhood
broken and only a true act of forgiveness will mend that bond. Sincere
acts of reparation, not just words of confession, are required to allow their
wounds to heal, coaxing them back to their rightful place as matriarchs of our
nation.
– Toni Morrison
“ Terrible, unspeakable things happened to Sethe at Sweet Home, the farm
where she lived as a slave for so many years until she escaped to Ohio. Her new
life is full of hope but eighteen years later, she is still not free. Sethe’s
new home is not only haunted by the memories of her past but also by the ghost
of her baby, who died nameless and whose tombstone is engraved with a single
word: Beloved “
In this essay we decide whether or not BELOVED is “ a ghost, a real woman, or the
concretisation of Sethe’s repressed memory “ , identify where she comes from,
and indicate what she wants from Sethe, Denver and Paul D. We comment on the
literary techniques that Toni Morrison uses to create the feelings of
uncertainty and ambiguity surrounding her character and to heighten the
reader’s awareness of the significance of the events which unfold throughout
the fabula. It is so much so, appropriate to repeat the text’s first epigraph;
“ Sixty Million
and more “
Taken from the book’s jacket, my essay’s epigraph, and the author’s
foreword give clear ideas as to who or what Beloved is. She is a multifaceted
character. The question of whether she is a ghost, a real woman, or Sethe’s (
Beloved’s mother ) repressed memory, is open to our own interpretations.
Beloved is a ghost, however, the postmodern narrative technique of ambiguity
allows the reader to decide on the status of Beloved. I argue, however, that
there are enough indications throughout the text that Beloved is indeed a
ghost. The supporting characters already mentioned above react and relate to
Beloved differently, opening the text to different points of view. My
conviction that ghosts exist supports my view that Beloved is a ghost.
In her clarification of who or what Beloved is Marsha Darling describes
aptly that;
“ She is a spirit on one hand, literally she is what Sethe thinks she
is, her child returned to her from the dead. And she must function like that in
the text. She is also another kind of dead which is not spiritual but, flush,
which is, a survivor from a true, factual slave ship “ (p65) .
The source of Beloved’s existence can be traced to the intertextual
reference to the Bible passage of Saint Paul’s letter to the Romans, used as a
second epigraph to this astonishing story;
“ I will call them my people which were not my people; and her beloved
which was not beloved . “
According to the Scripture Paul speaks about God’s patience with man (
and woman ) and the startling fact that “ only a few of them will be saved “ (
p 198, 1976 ) . Morrison’s response alludes to the bigoted white men and women
who believed that they were God’s chosen few. They believed that they had a
divine and custodial stranglehold over the inferior “ others “ who lacked God
and a spiritual home. Baby Sugg’s characterisation as an unorthodox spiritual
leader challenges the perverted beliefs of the white American land owners, and
Morrison asks whether or not God has lost patience with “ the chosen few “ and
instead will turn His divine will to those who suffer and are persecuted the
most by man’s evil and save them.
BELOVED ( 2007: Vintage: London ) came about as a result of Morrison’s
initial desire to speak about the rights of women; “ … equal pay, equal
treatment, access to professions, schools … and choice without stigma. To marry
or not. To have children or not ( p X ) . This desire leads her to respond
intertextually, with the creation of her character Sethe, to “ the historical
Margaret Garner “ ( p XI ) who was “ a young mother, who having escaped
slavery, was arrested for killing one of her children rather than let them be returned
to the owner’s plantation . “ I agree with Finuala Dowling’s belief that
Morrison was inspired by this woman.
To Sethe’s lover, Paul D , Beloved is a woman. He is fearfully unable
to accept her presence at Sethe’s rented
home, 124 . Indeed, the narrative starts;
“ 124 was spiteful. Full of baby’s venom “ ( p 3 ) . And yet we have no
way of knowing at this stage whether Paul D, the black slave woman’s nemesis
rather than brother, is reacting superstitiously, and whether or not he
believes that Beloved is a ghost. Beloved takes the form of a human in order to
realise his desire of being loved.
As a ghost, Beloved is, according to the rubric, “ the concretisation of
Sethe’s repressed memory “ . This claim is important, because it brings us to
the story’s main theme of memory. Morrison’s textual introduction “ Sixty
Million and more “ alludes to the devasting effects slavery has had on African
Americans, their counterparts and their African descendants. She argues that we
must never forget such calamitous events in our history, and yet acknowledges
through Sethe that the pain of remembering the past is excruciating, so much so
that it may be better to forget the past, but it is the human condition that
such terrible traumas remain buried deep in the psyche until it is prised out.
This is Beloved’s tearful role. Sethe in wanting to forget her past, initially
believes that her child has been brought back to her and that she has been
forgiven for her act of infanticide, like Garner, justifying her actions in
light of the abuse that she and her peers endure at the hands of their
repressive “ white owners “ .
The fabula is linear, beginning with introductions to Sethe, Denver and Paul D at 124, but time is shifted throughout the narrative, inviting the reader to trace Beloved’s roots. At one stage we are led to believe that Beloved is a reincarnation of Sethe’s mother, Baby Suggs, however, it is significant how this remarkable woman is used to show Sethe’s origins. Sethe believes firmly that her deceased mother has sent her child back to her from “ the other side “ ( p 236 ) which we interpret as an abyss between Heaven and Hell, purgatory as it were, a place where the restless dead wait for their day of reckoning. We could offer that Beloved’s return to her mother on earth below the clouds is a day of redemption, however, no ultimate peace is made between mother and daughter, with the mother unable to accept her child’s ghostly state.
The fabula is linear, beginning with introductions to Sethe, Denver and Paul D at 124, but time is shifted throughout the narrative, inviting the reader to trace Beloved’s roots. At one stage we are led to believe that Beloved is a reincarnation of Sethe’s mother, Baby Suggs, however, it is significant how this remarkable woman is used to show Sethe’s origins. Sethe believes firmly that her deceased mother has sent her child back to her from “ the other side “ ( p 236 ) which we interpret as an abyss between Heaven and Hell, purgatory as it were, a place where the restless dead wait for their day of reckoning. We could offer that Beloved’s return to her mother on earth below the clouds is a day of redemption, however, no ultimate peace is made between mother and daughter, with the mother unable to accept her child’s ghostly state.
Beloved’s purpose a supernatural being is also to help Sethe come to
terms with her actions. Sethe lays claim to her as her own;
“ Beloved, she my daughter. She mine. See. She come back to me of her
own free will and I don’t have to explain a thing. “
That she does not succeed is tragic. Sethe is not able to come to terms
with her tragic past and deeds and never
finding peace, loses her sanity, and Beloved, no longer useful, leaves
her once more to wander restlessly as her mother laments;
“ She left me “ ( p 320 ) .
Contrastingly, Denver, wary of her mother, finds peace, and is a beacon
of hope for the black, emancipated women of the future, finding peace of mind,
learning “ book stuff “ (p314) and gaining meaningful employment in order to
support her deranged mother. She is acutely aware of Beloved, where she comes
from and why she has come, and why she has left.
Paul D’s actions towards Beloved are understandable in light of the
circumstances of the lives of Sethe, Denver and himself, but it signifies a
warning to women that they are never entirely free from their bondage, whether
from slavery, or from male prejudice. This and Sethe’s treatment is Morrison’s
post-feminist response to the condition of African American women under the
yolk slavery during the nineteenth century in America.
The defamiliarising technique which Morrison uses to refer to the white
land owners is powerful. The ruthless “ schoolteacher “ ( p 44 ) is always
referred to in lower case type to emphasise the insignificance of his status as
a sub-human, in contrast to his treatment of black slaves as sub-humans. The
reference to white men as “ men without skin “ is haunting. This is a
post-colonial response to the white colonist who becomes “ the other “ , a
strange and unfamiliar pale human who is without strength and courage.
Beloved wants love from Sethe, friendship from Denver and recognition
from Paul D. In seeking out Paul D, Morrison opens up another “ tin box “ using
Beloved as a mythical creature to terrorise Paul D who does not accept her, and
confuse the reader’s expectations of the text.
In this essay we have concluded that Beloved is a ghost, but
acknowledged Morrison’s use of ambiguity and point of view through narration
and characterisation to open up the text to different interpretations of a
tragic yet important event in history, which she feels should be remembered and
never forgotten. Thus;
“ Sixty Million
and more . “
20 - PROBLEMS
RELATED TO THE CONCEPT OF “ A NATIONAL SOUTH AFRICAN LITERATURE “
A
Discussion and Proposal
In this essay problems related to the
concept of a “ national South African literature “ are discussed. Here, I
indicate ways in which the “ various South African literatures “ can be
conceptualised and approached. A response is made to the Study Guide’s proposed
“ Issues and Themes ? ( 52 ).
The various ethnic literatures that
constitute the South African literatures are an integral part of the country’s
heritage and cultures and cannot be summarily discared is in the case of
Afrikaans by certain sectors of the political hegemony, specifically amongst
the African Nationalists.
In order to better understand our literary
and cultural heritage, and our historical and colonial past, literatures
produced by liberation movements and writers such as Sol Plaatjie, Robert
Sobukwe, Steve Biko and Nelson Mandela, should appear alongside the works of
writers such as W A de Klerk who writes
under the influence of Nazi ideology ( Clare 2010 ). It is imperative to our
understanding, and qualified and informed acceptance or rejection of other
literatures not familiar to our community of languages and culture.
A national literature currently exists in
South Africa, even though the oral traditions of story-telling of certain
indigeneous groups such as the Xhoi and San, in their own languages, are not
yet formally recognised ( 2010 : 30 ) . It is, however, in danger of
disintegrating mainly as a result of the deterioration of the country’s
educational standards, mainly due to bureaucratic incompetence and an
under-utilisation of the literary, linguistic and language resources available
within the educational institutions of the country’s provinces, and an
over-emphasis of South African English as a dominant language of choice in the
discourses of engaging with the different cultural and language groups of the
country.
The various ethnic literatures that
constitute South African literatures are an integral part of the country’s
heritage, and in the case of Afrikaans-language speakers, cultures cannot be
discarded by sectors of the country’s political hegemony.
In order for a national literature to be
fully concretised and exist in South Africa, the oral traditions of
story-telling amongst indigenous Xhoi and San cultures must be formally
recognised. It is in danger of extinction, mainly due to the deterioration of
educational hierarchies, bureaucratic incompetence and the under-utilisation of
literary, linguistic and language resources available within regional
educational institutions.
Whilst it is a necessary tool for learning,
trading a communication across language ad cultural barriers, South African
English has been over-utilised a a dominant language of choice in the
discourses of cultural engagement.
From the outset, Western colonisers since
Jan van Riebeeck ( 3 ) and later Dutch and English settlers, imposed their
languages and cultures on indigenous nations and cultures. Further, imperialist
ideologies of the British Empire were imposed upon a developing Afrikaner
nation. The indigenous nations were thus forced to seek freedom and
independence to develop their cultures and way of life. This, in turn, was
exploited by the National Party (345) .
Self-proclaimed literary scholars were
guilty of ignorance and racism in formulating their ideas of what a national
literature should look like. Although prejudiced by a colonial vie of the “
other “ the contributions of Bleek and Lloyd ( Chapman 2003: 21 ), however,
were invaluable in planting the seeds of literary translations of indigenous
stories. Krog ( Chapman 2011: 224 ) continues this tradition of translation, a necessary
tool in developing a national literature.
Numerous claims have been made about the
existence of a South African national literature ( 2011: 32 ). Narrow,
bilingual, Eurocentric definitions of South African literatures by scholars
such as Purvis and Besselaar ( 10, 11 ) have been replaced by contributions
from scholars such as Gerard, Brink, Coetzee, MPhahlele and Mda. Gerard argued
that a national literature s linked to a nation
“ whose unity was established by
the fact that all its members speak the same language “ . It is a problematic
definition, because in the context of South Africa, its members speak different
language. This problem can be addressed through education where the learner is
taught formal subjects in English alongside adopting second and third languages
to aid their cultural development. This presents a further problem in that not
all indigenous languages have been fully developed.
Here, the role of literary scholars,
educators and publishers fluent in these languages, whether as first language
or second language speakers, is crucial in ensuring that such development can
take place. The continued development and evolution of the Afrikaans language
is also crucial, because it remains the language of choice amongst certain
indigenous cultures, even though their adoption was negative as a result of colonialism
and enslavement.
Brink ( 2009 ) at the forefront of the
process of “ decolonisation of the mind “ , in the use of his own first
language, Afrikaans, opens up his texts to the possibilities of new
interpretations of our histories and cultures through the method of
translation. This has unfortunately been confined to the English and other
Western European languages. Translation of such studies in postcolonial texts
should proceed in the indigenous languages. Through the search for solution by
scholars such as Krog and the late MPhahlele to concretising a national
literature, one solution lies in the translation of literary works of all
officially recognised languages. Krog’s translation of indigenous oral poetry
is invaluable.
The histories of social, cultural and
linguistic differences between various indigenous communities and the
differentiations made between white settler communities of European descent and
African indigenous populations has created many divisions within the country.
Further, South African literatures should be distinguished from Southern
African literatures as not all African literatures and cultures are indigenous
to the South African nation-state.
There is also a deterioration of spoken
languages amongst most cultures owing to the adoption of American materialistic
and ideological values, and as a consequence, American dialects. Further, while
Afrikaans remains the language of choice amongst the Xhoi and San, it is still
perceived as a language of oppression amongst the majority of cultures and even
amongst scholars.
The replacement of the bilingual definition
of South African literatures by multilingualism, however, remains a positive
trend. Our history of Afrikaans and English cultures and languages are being
viewed from the perspectives of indigenous African languages which still
possess rich oral traditions.
The exposure of indigenous languages and
literature to European influences and the influence of these indigenous
languages and literature on European languages, mainly in English, need not be
problematic. It has contributed positively to the development of South African
English and Afrikaans. There are linguistic possibilities within the African
indigenous languages as these cultural groups adapt to Westernised methods of production and
culture.
According to Oliphant the term “ nation “
signifies a human group with a common language, culture and history, conscious
of forming a community and residing in a unified, sovereign state “ ( 42 ). The
definition is correct, but problematic in the South African context as
communities remain divided along racial, cultural and linguistic lines, and
through the difficulty of understanding second and third languages. Where there
is an understanding of other languages it is regional, for example, in the
North and Western Cape Provinces, the Afrikaans language is widely understood,
in KwaZulu-Natal, Zulu is understood amongst most African residents, while in
the Eastern Cape, the dominant language remains Xhosa.
The South African Constitution recognising
thirteen languages, has begun the process of understanding languages across
cultural and regional lines, but the development of multilingualism remains
slow.
The relativist view, which is opposed to the
essentialist view of nationhood, is best suited to the conception of a
nation-state in South Africa, as it is subject to change ( 43 – 46 ) . With the
country’s democratic constitution being only sixteen years old, South African
languages and cultures are still in an evolutionary stage. Such evolution,
however, is stunted by the actions of state, where the ruling African National
Congress, like its predecessor, the National Party, have been accused of
suppressing the development of cultures and is languages, and the freedom of
expression, all of which is essential to the development of a wholly inclusive
national literature. It is apparen that hegemonic ideology is prioritised above
the development of languages and culture.
The concept of a nation-state will not be
hindered for now as it is enshrined in the constitution that the country is
subject to sovereign rule by all its people who are equal before the law. The
abuse of power entrusted by the citizens of states people to rule over them is
problematic as it hinders the nation’s development as a unitary state.
I disagree with the claim that linguistic
and cultural diversity found amongst people within the state renders any claim
to the existence of a national literature untenable. I reiterate that emphasis
on education and in the practice of translation of literary works across
languages will make it possible for a national literate to evolve.
I further argue that the concluding remark
in the Study Guide is now outdated. Although it is not noticed by all, people
of different cultures and languages are talking amongst one another and to one
another about issues within the nation of which there is a thread of common
interest and cause. Such examples include; health, HIV and AIDS, poverty,
unemployment, sport and recreation, the access to information and the freedom
of speech.
– Wole
Soyinka
An Essay
on Wole Soyinka’s AKE, THE YEARS OF CHILDHOOD
In Wole Soyinka’s autobiography, AKE, THE
YEARS OF CHILDHOOD ( 2000 ) the adult Soyinka memorably and acutely recalls his
youthful experiences with adults, his parents, unusually named Wild Christian
and Essay, and the environment in which he grows up.
The Nobel laureate’s encounter is his fond
and longing remembrance of his youth. Soyinka foregrounds his biographical
character to adulthood in order to emphasise this encounter. As he recalls his
past, he compares the old with the new, referring to distinct smells as he laments;
“ Smells are all gone, smells have been
overcome. “ ( 149 )
He notes that “ their (smells) conquerors “
were not there before as he lapses nostalgically back to his youth, remembering
such noises and events as “ the measured chimes of the towerclock “ and his
epic march with the police band ( 36 – 50 ).
While the youthful Soyinka wonders wide-eyed
and awe-struck at the sights and sounds that surround him, the elderly Soyinka
expresses bitterness at the changes that surround him on his return to Ake. He
likes everything the way it was.
Soyinka chronicles changes from a rural Ake
to an urban Ake. He remarks that there is more orderliness and tranquillity in
the older, rural surroundings. An earlier description of the church grounds is
focal ( 2 ). Soyinka’s description of the rural environment is detailed. It
begins with;
“ The sprawling, undulating terrain is all
of Ake “ ( 1 )
As conscious as he is of the new noises and
the smells of the urban environment ( 149 ), they are just as quickly dispelled
and frowned upon;
“ Alas, it is only yet another imitation of
foreign pop… “ ( 157 )
The adult Soyinka misses childhood innocence
and the clean, traditional life that goes with it. The young Soyinka admires
his father’s boldness and leadership. Like his father, Soyinka prefers old
traditions.
The ancient Yoruba traditions of Isara are
not understood by the boy, Wole, but the educated adult Soyinka is circumspect
in his understanding of the ancient traditions of his culture.
In chapter ten of AKE Soyinka details how
the music and food of his home town have changed. Observing “ a variety of stores peddling the products of
a global waste industry “ ( 150 ) Soyinka reminds us of a critical global
phenomenon.
Soyinka abhors the invasive, modern western
traditions. Comparing the old with the new, he shows his displeasure of the
turgid urban food smells which engulf Ake;
“ The hawkers’ lyrics of leaf-wrapped
moin-moin still resound in parts of Ake and the rest of the town, but along
Dayisi’s Walk is also a shop which sells moin-moin from a glass case, lit by
sea-green neon lamps. It lies side by side with McDonald’s hamburgers, Kentucky
Fried Chicken, hot dogs and dehydrated sausage-rolls. “ ( 156 )
Soyinka comments on music too, grimacing at
the “ high-decibel outpouring of rock and funk and punk and other thunk-thunk
from lands of instant-culture heroes. “ ( 157 )
In the encounter between the adult Soyinka
and the young Soyinka, the adult has a better understanding of everything
around him and is therefore able to object to the changes that he witnesses in
Ake.
The nostalgia of being a boy is acutely
recalled in earlier chapters of AKE. As he voices his disapproval of modernity
in a changing environment, he reminds us of his epic journey with the police
band. Now, everything around him, the noise, music, fast-food smells and
traffic, appals him.
Soyinka’s nostalgia and bitterness are
elucidated in his bitter narrative of the modern, chaotic environment which
dramatically replaces the rural peace and tranquillity of his formative years.
As we too hear “ the raucous clang of hand-bells “ ( 149 ), and “ the blare of
motor-horns “ ( 157 ), Soyinka recognises the everyday stress and pressures his
people are faced with as he remains true to older traditions, arguing for an
abandonment of Western mores. He understands his need for peace and tranquillity.
You can see that Soyinka misses “ the smell
of incense “ and “ the seasonal anthems “
( 152 ), the “ akara “ ( 153 ) and “ the tang of roasting coconut slices “ ( 154
) , the “moin-moin” ( 155 ) and the “ robo “ ( 156 ).
The adult Soyinka, like his father Essay, is
a teacher, old, wise and enlightened. As a boy Soyinka has a yearning for books
and learning, professing his love for the bookseller’s wife and at the age of
three, insisting that he is ready for school ( 24 ).
While we appreciate his scholarly response
to the changes around him in Ake, Soyinka’s bitterness is justified. His first
biography is predictably postcolonial as he laments the passing of youth in all
its innocence and the primitive beauty that surrounds it. He lambasts its
replacement; the destructible, indoctrinating material excess brought to Ake by
the town’s English, German and American colonisers.
The tone of Soyinka’s bitterness is more
extreme beyond chapter ten as he reminds us all that the West’s destruction of
his people’s culture and habits is inherently racist.
As the frightened Wole recalls how his uncle
Daodu “ survives Hitler’s demon bombers “
( 168 ) he hears Beere’s argument against the bombing of Japan;
“ Let me tell you Mr District Officer, we
are not impressed. We are by no means impressed – no, not surprised either. I
knew it was coming and when I heard it on the radio all I could think was, just
like them, just like the white race. You had to drop it on Japan, didn’t you?
Why didn’t you drop it on Germany? ”
Like the Africans, the Japanese are regarded
as inferior to the Europeans and Americans, by the Europeans and Americans, no
less.
Beere’s outburst occurs during the village
womens’ epic march to the district officer to demand freedom and equal rights.
Ironically, their struggle is not unique to Ake.
And let us not forget the degrading rules of
redress and behaviour at the young Wole’s new grammar school!
“ They teach you to say ‘ Sir ‘ in those
schools. Only slaves say Sir. “ ( 192 )
This brings me to the point of Soyinka’s
famous counter to Descarte’s Eurocentric claim. Soyinka is always suspicious of
the French philosopher’s notion of “ I think, therefore I am “ and his claim
that Africans do not manifest themselves by way of their thought processes.
Soyinka’s suspicion runs right through AKE. As he counters Descartes, Wole
Soyinka, like his African peers, walks tall and proudly to his mantra;
“ I feel, therefore I am.
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